Published online 1 January 2007
Published in Agron J 99:122-126 (2007)
DOI: 10.2134/agronj2006.0202
© 2007 American Society of Agronomy
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Pulse Crops
Dry Bean Production in Zero and Conventional Tillage
Robert E. Blackshawa,*,
Louis J. Molnara,
George W. Claytonb,
K. Neil Harkerb and
Toby Entza
a Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 3000, Lethbridge, AB, Canada T1J 4B1
b Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 6000 C & E Trail, Lacombe, AB, Canada T4L 1W1
* Corresponding author (blackshaw{at}agr.gc.ca)
Received for publication July 10, 2006.
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ABSTRACT
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Adoption of zero tillage production practices for dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) has lagged behind that of many other crops. A field experiment was conducted at two locations on the Canadian prairies to determine the response of dry bean planted into various crop stubbles in conventional and zero tillage. Dry bean emergence was delayed in one of six site years with zero tillage (ZT) compared with conventional tillage (CT) but maturity date was not affected. Dry bean density was never lower with ZT compared with CT and was higher in a few instances. There were no differences in insect or disease infestations between the two tillage treatments. Weed densities were slightly greater with ZT compared with CT but were well controlled with in-crop applications of sethoxydim and bentazon. Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) was the only previous crop to negatively affect dry bean yield as volunteer flax was not adequately controlled with bentazon. Over all previous crop stubbles and years, dry bean yield was similar in both tillage systems. Dry bean yielded 2060 and 2110 kg ha–1, and 1600 and 1710 kg ha–1 with CT and ZT at Lethbridge and Lacombe, Alberta, respectively. These results indicate that there is potential for successful production of dry bean within ZT cropping systems.
Abbreviations: CT, conventional tillage • ZT, zero tillage
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INTRODUCTION
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PRODUCTION of pulse crops has steadily increased over the last two decades on the Canadian prairies due to their rotational benefits and because they often provide greater economic return compared with cereals (Miller et al., 2002). Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) account for much of the increase but dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) hectares also have increased fourfold during this time (currently 
125 000 ha). Farmers have widely adopted ZT practices for production of field pea and lentil because of greater "snow trapping," increased water infiltration into soil, and reduced evaporative losses from the soil surface that results in greater amounts of available soil water needed for viable pulse crop production in this semiarid environment.
Despite widespread adoption of ZT systems for some pulses, dry bean in western Canada is largely produced in CT. The traditional dry bean production system in this region consists of viny, indeterminate cultivars planted in wide rows (60–80 cm), interrow tillage, and undercutting at maturity to facilitate harvesting. These management practices largely preclude ZT. However, the recent development of dry bean cultivars with an upright, determinate growth habit has made ZT production more feasible. Upright dry bean cultivars have several advantages including reduced susceptibility to white mold [Sclerotinia sclerotiorium (Lib.) de Bary], the potential to be planted in narrow rows (20–30 cm) with existing grain drills, and they can be direct-cut (no undercutting) at harvest (Blackshaw et al., 1999; Saindon et al., 1995; Shirtliffe and Johnston, 2002). Indeed, nearly two-thirds of dry beans on the Canadian prairies are now solid-seeded (narrow row production) and direct-cut but they are still grown under CT. Grower concerns about zero-till dry bean production include slower emergence (and possibly delayed maturity), establishment of adequate crop densities, effective weed control, and reduced harvest efficiencies.
Previous research has shown mixed results regarding zero-till dry bean production. A study in Nicaragua reported that dry bean yield following corn (Zea mays L.) was often lower with ZT compared with either conventional or minimum tillage (Aleman, 2001). Russo (2003) found that dry bean yield in Oklahoma was markedly reduced in a ZT system. A Michigan study documented lower dry bean yields in corn stubble with ZT in 2 of 3 yr (Xu and Pierce, 1998). Powell and Renner (1999) found that dry bean yield following corn was reduced with ZT in a clay loam (mesic Aeric Ochraqualfs, 1.7% organic matter, pH 7.9) but not in a sandy loam soil (mesic Typic Hapludalfs, 1.8% organic matter, pH 6.4). They noted that economic return could be higher due to reduced production costs in ZT production systems. In contrast to these studies, dry bean yield was similar in conventional and ZT in Ontario, Canada (Sandoval-Avila et al., 1994).
Additional research is clearly required to advise farmers on the merits of zero-till dry bean production. The current study was initiated to determine the response of dry bean grown in various crop stubbles under conventional and ZT practices on the Canadian prairies.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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A field experiment was conducted in 2001, 2003, and 2004 at Lethbridge, AB, Canada; and in 2003, 2004, and 2005 at Lacombe, AB, Canada. The soil type at Lethbridge was a Typic Haplustoll loam (37% sand, 30% silt, 33% clay) with a pH of 8.0 and 3% organic matter. The soil at Lacombe was a Typic Haplustoll sandy clay loam (43% sand, 21% silt, 36% clay) with a pH of 5.7 and 10% organic matter. Environmental conditions were generally conducive for good dry bean growth with the exception that drought conditions were experienced in 2001 at Lethbridge (Table 1). Growing season precipitation plus irrigation water was 273, 338, and 377 mm in 2001, 2003, and 2004, respectively at Lethbridge. Growing season precipitation at Lacombe was 209, 315, and 372 mm in 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively.
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Table 1. Air temperature and precipitation received during the growing season at Lethbridge and Lacombe, Alberta.
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In the year before dry bean production, various crops were grown to create crop stubbles into which dry beans subsequently would be planted. These previous crops were wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cv. AC Barrie), barley (Hordeum vulgare L., cv. Galt), canola (Brassica napus L., cv. Invigor 2573), and flax (cv. Flanders) at Lethbridge. At Lacombe, previous crops were wheat (AC Barrie), barley (cv. Trochu), canola (cv. Invigor 2733), flax (cv. CDC Bethune), oat (Avena sativa L., cv. AC Mustang), and field pea (cv. Eiffel). All crops were grown under recommended production practices and were harvested for grain with crop residues left on the soil surface. At Lacombe, barley and oat were harvested for silage as well as for grain.
Treatments in the dry bean year were arranged as a split-plot within a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Main plots were the previous crop stubble treatments and subplots were tillage intensity (CT or ZT). Conventional tillage at Lethbridge consisted of tillage with a field cultivator (5-cm-wide shovels) in October and with a cultivator (40-cm-wide shovels) in May (shortly before seeding) at a 10- to 12-cm depth. At Lacombe, CT consisted of tillage with a cultivator (5-cm-wide shovels) in October, with a double-disc in April, and with a cultivator (35-cm-wide shovels) shortly before seeding in May at a 10- to 12-cm depth. Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] at 890 g a.e. ha–1 was applied 1 wk before seeding dry beans to kill any existing vegetation in the zero-till plots. Dry beans [cv. AC Redbond (small red, determinate, upright) at Lethbridge, and cv. CDC Pintium (pinto, determinate, upright) at Lacombe] were planted 6 cm deep in 23-cm rows at 170 kg ha–1 in the 3rd week of May with zero-till drills (double-disc drill at Lethbridge and knife opener air-drill (5-cm points) at Lacombe). Dry bean seed was treated with thiram (tetramethythiuram disulphide) and metalaxyl [methyl N-(2-methoxyacetyl)-N-(2,6-xylyl)-DL-ananinate] for protection against diseases. Nitrogen at 100 kg ha–1 and P at 20 kg ha–1 were midrow banded 10 cm deep during the seeding operation each year at Lethbridge. At Lacombe, N at 70 kg ha–1, P at 20 kg ha–1, and K at 35 kg ha–1, were side-row banded 10 cm deep each year. Additionally, a granular Rhizobium innoculant at 5.6 kg ha–1 was placed with the seed at Lacombe. Sethoxydim {2-[1-(ethoxyimino)butyl]-5-[2-(ethylthio)propyl]-3-hydroxy-2-cyclohexen-1-one} at 200 g a.i. ha–1 and bentazon [3-(1-methylethyl)-(1H)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide] at 840 g a.i. ha–1 were applied at the first to second trifoliate leaf stage of dry bean for broad spectrum weed control. Merge adjuvant (proprietary surfactant blend, BASF Canada) at 1% v/v was added to these herbicides. Individual plot size was 2.5 by 10 m at Lethbridge and 4 by 15 m at Lacombe.
Crop residue on the soil surface was collected in two 0.5-m2 quadrats in each subplot shortly before seeding (after the final cultivation in the CT treatment), dried at 50°C for 2 wk and weighed. Days to 90% emergence of dry beans were visually rated three times each week until emergence was complete. Dry bean density was determined in late June by counting plants in four randomly placed 1-m row lengths. Disease, insect and weed infestations were visually assessed throughout the growing season in all plots. Days to 90% dry bean maturity were visually assessed twice weekly from early August until harvest. Dry bean yield was determined by hand-cutting plants in four randomly placed 1-m2 quadrats plot–1. Harvested material was dried at 30°C for 2 wk and subsequently threshed and cleaned to determine seed yield. A killing frost in late August precluded collecting yield data at Lacombe in 2005. Dry bean seed weight was determined by counting and weighing 1000 seeds.
All data within a location were statistically analyzed as a split-plot design (Steel and Torrie, 1980) with the previous crop treatment as the main plot and the tillage intensity treatment as the split-plot factor. Since this design was repeated over years, with a new randomization each year, year was also included in the model as a fixed effect. All the interactions among these three fixed factors were included in the model. The replication by year and the replication by year by crop interactions were included as random effects. The analyses were performed using the MIXED procedure in SAS (SAS Institute, 2005). The UNIVARIATE procedure within SAS (SAS Institute, 2005) was used to produce normal probability plots to check the residuals for normality and outliers. Obvious outliers were removed from the data and no data transformations were deemed necessary. Least squares means were generated for significant effects and treatment means were compared using single degree of freedom contrasts (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Crop Residue at Seeding
Crop residue on the soil surface at the time of seeding dry bean ranged from 24 to 892 g m–2 depending on the previous crop, tillage treatment, and study year (Tables 2 and 3). Crop residues were greater with ZT than with CT with barley and canola in 2001 and with all crops in 2003 at Lethbridge (Table 2). Within ZT, flax had less surface stubble than the other three crops in 2 of 3 yr. At Lacombe, surface crop residues were greater with ZT than with CT with all crops in all years (Table 3). This result can be attributed to more intensive tillage within the CT treatments at Lacombe compared with Lethbridge. Within ZT at Lacombe, barley and oat silage were among treatments with the least amount of crop residue on the soil surface (always <200 g m–2).
Dry Bean Establishment
Emergence rate of dry bean was only slightly affected by the crop stubble and tillage intensity treatments in this study. The time to reach 90% dry bean emergence was 3 d longer in wheat and barley stubble compared with canola and flax stubble in 2001 at Lethbridge, and over all previous crop stubbles emergence was delayed 2 d with ZT compared with CT in 2001 at Lethbridge (data not shown). Delayed emergence could have been due to cooler soil temperatures in these treatments as dry bean requires warmer soils for optimal germination and emergence than many other crops (Balasubramanian et al., 2004; Nieya et al., 2005; Scully and Waines, 1987). Dry bean emergence rate was similar with all treatments in 2003 and 2004 at Lethbridge and in all years at Lacombe (data not shown).
Dry bean density was similar in all previous crop stubbles in all years at both sites (data not shown), indicating that none of the crop residues in this study had any negative effect on dry bean establishment. Dry bean density was never lower with ZT compared with CT at either site (Table 4). Indeed, dry bean density was greater with ZT than with CT in 2003 at Lethbridge and in 2004 at Lacombe. This may have been due to improved moisture conditions near the soil surface or greater seed–soil contact in ZT systems (Miller et al., 2002).
Disease, Insect, and Weed Infestations
Visual assessments throughout the growing season did not reveal any differences in disease or insect infestations (generally low at both sites in all years) among the previous crop stubble and tillage intensity treatments (data not shown). Predominant weed species were redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), kochia [Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad.], common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.), and wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.) at Lethbridge; and wild oat (Avena fatua L.), redstem filaree [Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her. Ex Ait], and wild buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus L.) at Lacombe. Weed densities at the time of applying in-crop herbicides were slightly greater in ZT compared with CT but were well controlled with sethoxydim and bentazon in all years (data not shown). The only species not adequately controlled with these herbicides was volunteer flax. These results indicate that growers contemplating zero-till dry bean production should not be overly concerned about greater pest management problems.
Dry Bean Maturity
Although dry bean emergence was delayed 2 to 3 d in a few treatments in 2001 at Lethbridge, no differences in dry bean maturity were noted among treatments at Lethbridge in any year (data not shown). Dry bean attained maturity in 94, 97, and 105 d in 2001, 2003, and 2004 at Lethbridge, respectively. Similarly, dry bean maturity was unaffected by any of the treatments at Lacombe; dry bean matured in 95 and 97 d in 2003 and 2004, respectively. An early killing frost precluded collecting maturity data in 2005 at Lacombe.
Dry Bean Yield and Seed Weight
Dry bean seed yield was lower in flax stubble than in the other three crop stubbles in 2001 and 2004 at Lethbridge (Table 5, Contrast 1). This was largely due to competitive infestations of volunteer flax that were not controlled with the herbicides used in this study. Dry bean yield was greater with ZT than with CT in barley stubble in 2001 (Table 5, Contrast 3), in canola stubble in 2003 and 2004 (Table 5, Contrast 4), and in flax stubble in 2003 (Table 5, Contrast 5). The only instance where yield was greater with CT at Lethbridge occurred with flax in 2004 (Table 5, Contrast 5) and may be related to better volunteer flax control in tilled treatments.
Previous crop stubble treatments exhibited few consistent effects on dry bean yield at Lacombe (Table 6). Volunteer flax also was a problem at Lacombe and yield was reduced in zero-till plots in 2003 (Table 6, Contrast 2). Dry bean yields in barley silage plots were among the lowest in 2003 (Table 6, Contrast 3) but this result did not occur with oat silage in 2003 (Table 6, Contrast 4) or with either silage crop in 2004 (Table 6, Contrasts 3 and 4). Dry bean yield was lower with ZT than with CT in flax and oat silage stubble in 2003 (Table 6, Contrasts 8 and 12). In contrast, dry bean yield was higher with ZT than with CT in wheat, canola, flax, barley silage, and oat silage stubble in 2004 (Table 6, Contrasts 5, 7, 8, 11, and 12). These results contrast those of several previous studies where dry bean yield was sometimes reduced when grown in ZT systems (Aleman, 2001; Powell and Renner, 1999; Russo, 2003; Xu and Pierce, 1998) but are similar to those reported by Sandoval-Avila et al. (1994).
Dry bean seed weight was not affected by the previous crop in any year at either location (data not shown). Seed weight was lower with ZT than with CT in 1 of 3 yr at Lethbridge (Table 7). However, the opposite result occurred at Lacombe in both 2003 and 2004. These small differences in seed weight would not be expected to affect marketing of this crop.
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CONCLUSIONS
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Results indicate that dry bean can be established following a diverse range of crops commonly grown on the Canadian prairies. This finding is important as it allows farmers greater flexibility in including dry bean in their crop rotations. Diverse crop rotations are a key component of improved pest management and sustainable cropping systems (Blackshaw, 2003; Liebman and Staver, 2001).
This study indicates that dry bean can be successfully grown in ZT systems in western Canada, similar to current practices for field pea and lentil in this region. Dry bean stand establishment, pest management, maturity date, and yield were not compromised in a zero-till compared with a conventional-till production system. Over all previous crop stubbles and years, tillage intensity had no significant effect on dry bean yield [2060 (160) vs. 2110 (160) kg ha–1, and 1600 (45) vs. 1710 (54) kg ha–1, in CT vs. ZT at Lethbridge and Lacombe, respectively]. Growers should be cautioned about zero-till dry beans following flax as volunteer flax control is limited to preplant glyphosate with few herbicide options for in-crop control.
Information gained in this study will be utilized to encourage farmer adoption of zero-till dry bean production practices and to facilitate increased expansion of this important pulse crop on the Canadian prairies.
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REFERENCES
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- Liebman, M., and C.P. Staver. 2001. Crop diversification for weed management. p. 322–374. In M. Liebman et al. (ed.) Ecological management of agricultural weeds. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
