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Published online 5 June 2006
Published in Agron J 98:999-1004 (2006)
DOI: 10.2134/agronj2005.0215
© 2006 American Society of Agronomy
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
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Production Papers

Tillage and Crop Rotation Impact on Soybean Grain Yield and Composition

Ryan J. Temperly and Rogerio Borges*

Dep. of Agron., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706

* Corresponding author (rborges{at}wisc.edu)

Received for publication July 22, 2005.

   ABSTRACT
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] yield response to tillage and crop rotation has varied among studies. Information regarding the effects of crop rotation and tillage on protein and oil concentrations in soybean grain is limited. A 3-yr field study was conducted near Arlington, WI using conventional tillage and no-tillage systems in seven soybean and corn (Zea mays L.) rotations. The objective was to determine the effect of tillage system and crop rotation on the yield, protein concentration, and oil concentration of soybean grain. The tillage x rotation interaction was significant (P ≤ 0.05) for grain yield. In the no-tillage system, yields dropped 42% from 4.00 Mg ha–1 in first-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn to 2.33 Mg ha–1 in continuous soybean. In the conventional tillage system, yields dropped 35% from 3.01 Mg ha–1 in first-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn to 2.04 Mg ha–1 in continuous soybean. The tillage x rotation interaction was significant (P ≤ 0.05) for protein concentration. In the conventional tillage system, protein concentration decreased from 357 mg kg–1 in first-year soybean following five consecutive years of corn to 351 mg kg–1 in fifth-year soybean following five consecutive years of corn. No clear trend was observed for protein concentration in the no-tillage system. Oil concentration increased as consecutive years of soybean production increased in both tillage systems at a similar rate.

Abbreviations: SCN, soybean cyst nematode


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
CROP ROTATION has been utilized as a beneficial management practice for centuries. The rotation of soybean and corn increases the yield of both crops when compared with monoculture production (Crookston et al., 1991; Meese et al., 1991; Pedersen and Lauer, 2002). Even when all production variables appear to be optimum and problems associated with monoculture cropping are not apparent, yield increases from rotating soybean and corn have been observed for both crops (Crookston et al., 1991). Bhowmik and Doll (1982) reported that soybean yielded an additional 10 to 15% when rotated with corn compared with continuous soybean production.

Yield response of soybean grown in different tillage systems has shown mixed results. Varying results in soybean yield among tillage systems have been associated with crop rotation (Edwards et al., 1988; Guy and Oplinger, 1989; Meese et al., 1991; Pedersen and Lauer, 2003), poor emergence due to cool early-season soil temperatures (Phillips et al., 1980), differences in soil moisture (Elmore, 1987, 1990), soil drainage characteristics (Dick and van Doren, 1985), and weed and disease pressure (Buhler et al., 1990; Burnside et al., 1980; Freed et al., 1987; Kapusta, 1979; Meese et al., 1991; Vasilas et al., 1988), but rotating soybean and corn can reduce yield loss for both crops compared with either soybean or corn monoculture in no-tillage conditions (Meese et al., 1991).

Soybean is one of the most valuable oilseed crops in the world. Approximately one-third of the world's edible oils and two-thirds of the world's protein meal are derived from soybean (Golbitz, 2004). Wholesale prices and quantity of oil and meal constituents determine the value of a bushel of soybean to processors (Updaw and Nichols, 1980). Variation in soybean oil concentration from different geographical regions of the USA is not significant, but considerable variation in protein concentration does exist (Updaw and Nichols, 1980; Brumm and Hurburgh, 2003). The authors found that soybean from northern production regions has lower protein concentration than soybean produced in the southern USA.

Increased demand for both industrial and food uses of soybean has prompted the seed industry to select varieties with specific chemical traits in anticipation of premium market opportunities. Soybean cultivars with elevated protein or oil concentrations are available, but the grain yield of those cultivars is often lower than cultivars with typical protein or oil concentration (Burton, 1985). Challenges facing plant breeders selecting varieties with increased protein and oil concentration are a strong negative correlation between protein and oil (Hymowitz et al., 1972; Leffel and Rhodes, 1993; Liu et al., 1995) and a moderately negative correlation between protein and grain yield (Burton, 1985). There have been some cases where breeders increased protein concentration without reducing grain yield (Brim and Burton, 1979; Wehrmenn et al., 1987; Wilcox and Cavins, 1995). Helms and Watt (1991) found that commercial soybean varieties with increased protein or oil concentration did not necessarily produce more protein or oil output per hectare when protein and oil concentration were multiplied by grain yield. However, the authors stated that a trade-off between grain yield and protein or oil concentration may exist if a sufficient premium price for increased protein or oil concentration were implemented.

Crop management practices can affect the protein and oil concentration of a soybean cultivar. Ham et al. (1975) observed increased grain yield, protein concentration, and protein per hectare from preplant N fertilization of soybean in Minnesota. The study also showed decreased oil concentration, but oil per hectare increased due to increased grain yield. A more recent Minnesota study (Schmitt et al., 2001) reported grain yield and oil concentration did not respond to in-season N applications, but protein concentration was increased with N applications although the relative increase was small. Several studies have shown increased protein concentration and decreased grain yield and oil concentration as planting date is delayed (Beaver and Johnson, 1981; Feaster, 1949; Helms et al., 1990; Osler and Cartter, 1954). Borges (2005) observed increased grain yield and protein concentration, and decreased oil concentration, when acidic soil was amended to a neutral pH level.

Previous research has shown soybean grain yield responds to tillage system and crop rotation. There are also data indicating crop management practices can influence the protein and oil concentration of soybean grain. However, information regarding the effects of tillage and crop rotation on protein and oil concentrations in soybean grain is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of tillage system and crop rotation on the yield, protein concentration, and oil concentration of soybean grain.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Field research was conducted during the 2003, 2004, and 2005 growing seasons at the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Research Station near Arlington, WI on a Plano silt loam soil (fine-silty, mixed, mesic, Typic Agriudoll). The experimental design was a randomized complete block in a split-split plot treatment arrangement replicated four times. Each replication contained two tillage plots and 14 crop rotation subplots. Sub-subplots were used to test three insecticide seed treatments and will not be discussed in this paper. Tillage plots consisted of no-tillage and conventional tillage systems that were established in 1986. The conventional tillage system consisted of a chisel plow pass in the fall and two field cultivator passes in the spring. In the no-tillage system, seed was planted directly into the undisturbed residue of the previous crop. Rotation subplots were established in 1983 and consisted of 14 soybean and corn rotations set on a 10-year cycle. Rotations in this study are as follows: (i) continuous monoculture of both soybean and corn, (ii) annual rotation of each crop, and (iii) 5 yr of consecutive soybean followed by 5 yr of consecutive corn such that, during each year of the study, a first, second, third, fourth, and fifth year of each crop is present (Table 1).


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  		Table 1. Rotation sequences for corn (C) and soybean (S) from 1996 to 2005.

 
Subplot experimental units were 10 by 10 m. Soil samples were taken on 19 Apr. 2003, 20 May 2004, and 16 Nov. 2004 to determine soybean cyst nematode (SCN) (Heterodera glycines Ichinohe) egg counts in each subplot. Ten soil cores (2.5-cm diam. by 15-cm depth) were taken randomly from each subplot. The cores were then mixed together to obtain a composite sample. A 100-cm3 subsample was stirred in 1 L of water. The suspension was poured through a 710-µm sieve nested with a 250-µm sieve. Cysts were caught on the 250-µm sieve and combined with the sediment from the vial. Eggs were released from cysts using a 40-mL tissue grinder by putting the pestle in contact with the bottom and rotating the pestle 180°. The suspension was then decanted onto a 63-µm sieve nested with a 38-µm sieve. Eggs of SCN were caught on the 38-µm sieve, rinsed, and transferred to a 30-mL vial of water. The number of eggs was counted in 10 mL of the suspension using counting rings.

Soybean was planted using a Kinze 2000 interplant planter (Kinze Manufacturing, Williamsburg, IA) at a row spacing of 76 cm. Soybean was planted at 383 000 seeds ha–1 on 17 May 2003, 17 May 2004, and 2 May 2005 at a depth of 2.5 cm. The SCN susceptible variety NK S24-K4 was used in each year of the experiment. In 2003, 527 g a.e. ha–1 of 2,4-D [2,4(dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid] and 841 g a.i. ha–1 of paraquat dichloride (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium dichloride) were applied before planting for weed control. Pre-emergence weed control was accomplished with 2140 g a.i. ha–1 of metolachlor [2-chloroN-(ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-N-(2-methoxy-1-methyl-ethyl)acetamide]. Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] was applied twice after emergence at 1260 and 827 g a.e. ha–1, respectively, to control weeds. In 2004 2,4-D and metolachlor were applied before planting for weed control at 527 g a.e. ha–1 and 2140 g a.i. ha–1, respectively. Glyphosate was applied twice after emergence at 1260 and 827 g a.e. ha–1 to control weeds. In 2005, pre-emergence weed control was achieved with 351 g a.e. ha–1 of 2,4-D and 2140 g a.i. ha–1 of metolachlor. Glyphosate was applied after emergence at 1260 g a.e. ha–1 to control weeds.

Plant height was measured at harvest on all subplots. Soybean height is herein defined as centimeters from the soil surface to the tip of main stem and represents the average height of 18 to 30 plants at each subplot. Six rows of each subplot were harvested on 20 Oct. 2003, 12 Oct. 2004, and 3 Oct. 2005 using an Almaco Plot Combine (Allen Machine Co., Nevada, IA). Soybean grain weight and moisture were recorded for each subplot using a HarvestData System (Harvestmaster, Inc., Logan, UT). Grain yields were calculated on a 130 g kg–1 moisture basis.

Three 500-g grain samples were collected from each soybean subplot to determine protein and oil concentration as well as seed weight. Samples were analyzed on a 130 g kg–1 moisture basis by a Foss Infratec 1241 Grain Analyzer (Foss Tecator AB, Höganas, Sweden), and the mean protein and oil concentration of the three samples was used for data analysis. Protein and oil output per hectare were calculated by multiplying grain yield by protein and oil concentration for each treatment combination. The result expressed the total amount of protein or oil output in kilograms per hectare. Seed weight was determined by averaging the weight of three sets of 100 seeds randomly selected from each grain sample. Seed weight was only determined in 2003 and 2004.

Weather data were collected at the Arlington Research Station by an automated weather station equipped with data loggers and sensors that measure air temperature and rainfall.

All data were subjected to an analysis of variance using the PROC MIXED procedure (Littell et al., 1996) of SAS (SAS Inst., 1995). Replicates and years were treated as random effects, and tillage system and crop rotation were considered fixed effects to calculate the expected mean squares and appropriate F tests in the analysis of variance. Egg counts of SCN from the April 2003, May 2004, and November 2004 sampling were used in covariate analysis to separate SCN response from treatment response in 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively. Correlation analysis between variables was computed using the PROC CORR procedure of SAS. Mean comparisons were made using Fisher's protected LSD test (P ≤ 0.05).


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Weather conditions varied considerably during the 3 yr of this study (Table 2). Rainfall during the 2003 and 2005 growing seasons (May to September) was below the 40-yr average. Rainfall was well above the 40-yr average during May 2004 and below average the remainder of that season. Mean temperature was consistently below the 40-yr average during the first two seasons, and air temperatures in July and August of 2004 were much lower than those of 2003. Temperatures in 2005 were highly variable with May and August being cooler than the 40-yr average, while June and September air temperatures were well above the 40-yr average.


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  		Table 2. Monthly air temperature and rainfall during the 2003, 2004, and 2005 growing seasons for Arlington, WI.

 
Grain Yield
A tillage system x rotation interaction was observed for soybean grain yield (Table 3). However, the no-tillage system produced higher soybean yields in all rotations except continuous soybean, and sequential years of soybean in rotation tended to reduce grain yield in both tillage systems (Fig. 1 ). The significant tillage system x rotation interaction is explained by differences in the magnitude of the yield response to crop rotation within each tillage system. In the no-tillage system, yields dropped 42% from 4.00 Mg ha–1 in first-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn to 2.33 Mg ha–1 in continuous soybean. In the conventional tillage system, yields dropped 35% from 3.01 Mg ha–1 in first-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn to 2.04 Mg ha–1 in continuous soybean (Fig. 1).


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  		Table 3. Tillage and crop rotation influence on treatment means and significance of F values from analysis of variance of soybean grain yield, protein and oil concentration, protein and oil output, hundred-seed weight, and plant height averaged across the 2003, 2004, and 2005 growing seasons in Arlington, WI.

 

Figure 1
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  		Fig. 1. Tillage and crop rotation impact on soybean grain yield, protein concentration, and oil concentration averaged across 2003, 2004, and 2005 growing seasons in Arlington, WI. Rotations are: 1 = first-year soybean following 5 yr of corn; S-C = soybean alternated annually with corn; 2, 3, 4, and 5 = second-, third-, fourth-, and fifth-year soybean following 5 yr of corn; and Cont. = continuous soybean since 1983. Least significant difference (LSD) values for the tillage by rotation interaction at P ≤ 0.05; NS = not significant; C. till = conventional tillage.

 
Figure 1 also shows a yield decrease with consecutive years of soybean in rotation in both tillage systems. These results are similar to those of Crookston et al. (1991), Meese et al. (1991), and Pedersen and Lauer (2002), who observed first-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn had significantly higher yields than all other rotations. The yield advantage observed in the no-tillage system in this study agrees with results obtained by Pedersen and Lauer (2003) but contradicts those of Guy and Oplinger (1989), Pedersen and Lauer (2002), and Philbrook et al. (1991). Note that all studies listed above were conducted at the Arlington crop rotation trial. According to Pedersen and Lauer (2003), SCN was first identified in this trial in 2001. The authors speculated that the recently detected SCN infestation could be the cause for the difference between their results and those from previous studies.

Visual observations from periodical scouting of disease and insect pests did not show a clear relationship between pest incidence and rotation or tillage system in this study. Sampling for SCN eggs conducted in spring 2003, spring 2004, and fall 2004 revealed more SCN in the conventional tillage system compared with the no-tillage system (data not shown). Correlation analysis between SCN egg population and grain yield was significant (P ≤ 0.001) and negative (data not shown). However, the covariate effect of SCN was not significant for grain yield (data not shown). Therefore, the recently detected SCN infestation does not explain yield responses in this study, and the rotation x tillage system effect observed cannot be explained with certainty.

Protein Concentration
A tillage system x rotation interaction was observed for the protein concentration (Table 3). Protein concentration tended to decrease as consecutive years of soybean production increased in the conventional tillage, and no trend was observed in the no-tillage system (Fig. 1). In the conventional tillage, the effects of crop rotation on the protein concentration of soybean grain are similar to those observed on grain yield. This result should be noted because previous studies (Brim and Burton, 1979; Burton, 1985; Wehrmenn et al., 1987; Wilcox and Cavins, 1995) have shown the highest protein concentration is not typically observed at maximum grain yield. The apparent contradiction might be explained by the fact that previous studies tested several cultivars with different genetics in one cropping system as opposed to one cultivar in various cropping systems. Soybean varieties selected for maximum protein concentration typically have reduced yield potential (Burton, 1985). However, data from this study and Borges (2005) show that a single soybean variety grown over a range of growing conditions can have a positive correlation between grain yield and protein concentration in the conventional tillage.

Oil Concentration
The tillage main effect and the tillage x rotation interaction were not significant; however, oil concentration differed among crop rotation (Table 3). First-year soybean following 5 yr of consecutive corn and the corn–soybean rotation had the lowest oil concentration. A general trend of increasing oil concentration as consecutive years of soybean production increased was observed in both tillage systems. These trends are opposite to those observed for plant height (Fig. 1). The negative correlation observed between oil concentration and plant height agrees with Bennett et al. (2003), who showed higher oil concentration in soybean seed from basal plant nodes compared with upper plant nodes. The crop rotation effect on oil concentration in the conventional tillage system is opposite of that observed for protein concentration in this study (Fig. 1). This result agrees with previous studies (Hymowitz et al., 1972; Leffel and Rhodes, 1993; Liu et al., 1995) that showed a highly negative correlation between protein and oil concentration.

Protein and Oil Output per Hectare
A tillage x rotation interaction affected (P ≤ 0.05) both soybean protein and oil output per hectare (Table 3). In both cases, the interaction is explained primarily by differences in the magnitude of response to crop rotation within each tillage system. Fewer years of consecutive soybean increased soybean protein and oil output per hectare in both tillage systems, but the rate of increase was greater for the no-tillage system (Fig. 1). The effects of tillage system and rotation on the protein and oil output per hectare are similar to those observed for grain yield. Grain yield was positive and significantly (P ≤ 0.001) correlated with protein and oil output per hectare each year of this study, and the coefficient of correlation (r) was above 0.99 in all years for both variables. Furthermore, the tillage effect on oil output per hectare is contrary to results discussed earlier for oil concentration. The results from this study indicate that grain yield had a greater impact than protein or oil concentration on the total protein and oil output per hectare, respectively.

Seed Weight and Plant Height
Seed weight was not affected by either tillage or crop rotation in this study (Table 3). A tillage x rotation interaction was detected for plant height. In the conventional tillage, a significant decline in plant high was observed when soybean was grown three or more consecutive years. In the no-tillage system, it took 5 yr of consecutive soybean before plant height was decreased.


   CONCLUSIONS
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
 
The negative yield effect of four and five consecutive years of soybean production is relatively higher in the no-tillage system compared with the conventional tillage system. Protein concentration tends to decrease in conventional tillage as consecutive years of soybean production in the rotation increases. Oil concentration increases at a similar rate in both tillage systems as consecutive years of soybean production in the rotation increases.


   NOTES
TOP
 NOTES
ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Research supported in part by the Hatch fund and Wisconsin Soybean Marketing Board.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 




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