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Agronomy Journal 95:218-223 (2003)
© 2003 American Society of Agronomy

PRODUCTION PAPERS

Seeding Date Effect on Rice Grain Yields in Arkansas and Louisiana

Nathan A. Slaton*,a, Steve D. Linscombeb, Richard J. Normanc and Edward E. Gbur, Jr.d

a Dep. of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, 1366 W. Altheimer Drive, Fayetteville, AR 72704
b Rice Res. Stn., Louisiana Agric. Exp. Stn., LSU Agricultural Center, P.O. Box 1429, Crowley, LA 70527
c Dep. of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, 115 Plant Science Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701
d Agricultural Statistics Laboratory, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701

* Corresponding author (nslaton{at}uark.edu)

Received for publication March 12, 2002.

   ABSTRACT
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 
Seeding date has a substantial influence on rice (Oryza sativa L.) grain yield. Previous studies, across the Midsouth rice producing area in the USA, have shown that rice grain yields decrease as the date of seeding is delayed. However, information quantifying the rate of yield decline has not been developed. The primary objective of this research was to determine the influence of seeding date on rice grain yield for two geographical areas in the USA. Yield data from Stuttgart, AR, and Crowley, LA, were compared for studies conducted in the 1990s with modern cultivars and from the 1960s and 1970s with older cultivars. Modern rice cultivars produced maximum grain yields when seeded from 16 February through 28 March at Crowley, LA, and 29 March through 26 April at Stuttgart, AR. Older cultivars grown in the 1960s and early 1970s showed similar, but slightly later optimum seeding dates. Quadratic equations best described the relationship between seeding date and relative grain yield by location and era. The rate of yield decline was the same in both Arkansas and Louisiana and for each era evaluated. The average daily high and low air temperatures for the predicted optimum seeding dates are 20 and 8°C at Crowley, LA, and 24 and 11°C at Stuttgart, AR. Rice seeded during the optimum period has a longer vegetative growth phase than later seeded rice. The relationship between seeding date and rice grain yield will aid growers in making crop planting decisions based on expected grain yields and commodity prices.

Abbreviations: IE, internode elongation • LSU-CRRS, Louisiana State University Crowley Rice Research Station • RY, relative yield • UA-RREC, University of Arkansas Rice Research and Extension Center


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 
STUDIES INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF SEEDING DATE ON RICE (Oryza sativa L.) grain yields have been sporadically conducted since the 1930s (Adair, 1940; Adair and Cralley, 1950; Faw and Johnston, 1975; Gravois and Helms, 1998; Jenkins and Jones, 1944; Jodon and McIlrath, 1971). In Louisiana, Jodon and McIlrath (1971) found that April-seeded rice produced the highest grain yields and seeding after the first week of May resulted in a pronounced yield decline. Gravois and Helms (1998) also showed that rice grain yields declined as seeding date was delayed and that very short-season cultivars did not always produce higher grain yields than midseason cultivars when seeded late. Louisiana and Arkansas growers also indicate that their highest rice grain yields generally occur for the earliest seeded rice and tend to decline as seeding date is delayed.

Current seeding-date recommendations for rice use guidelines that were developed from seeding date studies conducted with tall, long-season cultivars that are no longer grown (Faw and Johnston, 1975; Jodon and McIlrath, 1971). Despite numerous studies on rice seeding dates conducted in the USA, the rate of yield loss from delayed seeding has never been quantified. Specific information on the rate of yield decline of modern rice cultivars to seeding date in rice producing areas of the southern USA is needed to assist rice producers in making crop management decisions.

Crop production guidelines often provide generalizations concerning the potential yield loss for seeding a crop species after a specific critical date within a geographical region. For example, soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] yields in Arkansas are estimated to decline 1 to 2% d-1 when seeded after 15 June and may decline 2 to 3% d-1 after 1 July (Ashlock et al., 2000). Yield potential, as affected by seeding date, is valuable to farmers because they often make decisions on which crop species or cultivar to seed while considering commodity prices, production costs, and environmental conditions. These decisions are most frequently considered when adverse weather conditions prevent rice establishment during the optimum seeding period, when replanting is necessary, or when the profit margin differs among crop species.

The Arkansas state average rice yield has increased from approximately 2500 kg ha-1 in the 1950s to 5000 kg ha-1 in the 1970s to 6500 kg ha-1 in the 1990s (National Agric. Statistics Service, 2002). Rice yields in Louisiana have shown a similar increase over time (National Agric. Statistics Service, 2002). Technological progress in mechanization, pest control, fertilization, and cultivar development has changed rice production practices and increased grain yields since most of the previous studies on rice seeding dates were published. Today, rice yields are closer to reaching their genetic yield potential due to improved management and pest control. Thus, environmental conditions, as influenced by seeding date, may have a greater relative effect on rice grain yields. The objectives of this research were to (i) identify the optimum seeding dates for two geographical regions involved in rice production; (ii) quantify yield loss associated with delayed seeding; and (iii) compare rice grain yield response to seeding date of new cultivars produced with current technology to that observed by previous research with obsolete cultivars.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 
Data from ongoing cultivar evaluation studies and previously published studies were used to assess the effect of seeding date on rice grain yields. Seeding date studies were conducted at the Louisiana State University Rice Research Station (LSU-CRRS) near Crowley, LA (30.12°N lat), and at the University of Arkansas Rice Research and Extension Center (UA-RREC) near Stuttgart, AR (34.30°N lat), to characterize rice yield response to seeding date. Approximately 481 km (north–south distance) separates the UA-RREC and LSU-CRRS. The soil at the LSU-CRRS is a Crowley silt loam (fine, smectitic, hyperthermic Typic Albaqualfs). The soil at the UA-RREC is a DeWitt silt loam (fine, smectitic, thermic Typic Albaqualfs). The LSU-CRRS and UA-RREC are located in the primary rice-producing regions of each state. The average daily air and soil temperatures for each location were obtained from the National Climatic Data Center (2002).

Grain yield data from two general time periods—the 1990s and the late 1960s to early 1970s—at each location were compared. In Arkansas, grain yield data from 1969 to 1972 (Faw and Johnston, 1975), 1993 (R.S. Helms, personal communication, 1993), 1994 to 1995 (Gravois and Helms, 1998), and 1998 to 2000 (Norman et al., 1999, 2000, and 2001) were used in statistical analysis. In Louisiana, grain yield data from 1966 to 1969 (Jodon and McIlrath, 1971) and 1995 to 2000 (Linscombe et al., 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999a, and 2000) were used in statistical analysis. The cultivars used in seeding date studies at the two locations, for like eras (time periods), were similar since the same rice cultivars are usually grown in both Arkansas and Louisiana. The specific cultivar names can be obtained from the aforementioned references. The total number of rice cultivars included in studies performed during the 1990s was 25 for the UA-RREC and 19 for the LSU-CRRS. The number of cultivars in the late 1960s to early 1970s studies was 10 for the UA-RREC and 20 for the LSU-CRRS.

All seeding date studies conducted in the 1990s were drill-seeded in conventionally tilled soil, followed soybean in the crop rotation, seeded at a rate of 100 to 120 kg ha-1 in plots consisting of seven or nine 4.88 m long rows spaced 17.8 cm apart, and grown with a delayed-flood management system. Each cultivar was replicated three or four times within each seeding date in a randomized complete block split plot design with seeding date as the main plot. Pest management and methods of fertilization were different between the locations, but similar for an individual year within each study. In general, crop production followed the current guidelines recommended by each state (Linscombe et al., 1999b; Slaton, 2001).

At maturity, the middle 3.6 m of the center three rows of each plot were hand-harvested and threshed with a Vogel thresher. Weight and moisture of the harvested grain were measured immediately after harvest. Grain yields were adjusted to 120 g kg-1 moisture. Actual grain yields (kg ha-1) were converted to percent relative yields (RY) to eliminate numerical differences in actual grain yields among years, management systems, and locations. For each cultivar, the grain yield produced at each seeding date was divided by the highest grain yield produced for that year and multiplied by 100. For example, each cultivar had one seeding date with a RY of 100 for each year and location and all other seeding dates for that cultivar had relative yields <100.

For all location–era combinations, relative yields, averaged over all cultivars within years, were regressed on seeding dates, expressed as the day of the year (e.g., 1 April = 91), assuming a quadratic relationship. Yields of other crops, including corn (Zea mays L.) (Lauer et al., 1999) and hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Blue et al., 1990), show a quadratic relationship across seeding dates. The initial regression model fit allowed the intercept, linear, and quadratic coefficients to depend on location and/or era within location. From this initial fit, the F-test for the effect of era within location on the quadratic coefficient was nonsignificant (p = 0.8986), the effect of location was nonsignificant (p = 0.6403), and the average quadratic coefficient was significant (p < 0.0001). We then refit the model assuming a common quadratic coefficient for all location–era combinations. The location and era within location effects on both the intercept and linear term were significant. All regression coefficients were allowed to depend on location (LSU-CRRS or UA-RREC) and era within location. The analysis of covariance technique was used to test for dependence of coefficients on location and era. The quadratic coefficient was found to be the same for all location–era combinations (p = 0.8887) and the quadratic model was refit with only the intercept and linear term depending on location and era. The final fitted model was used to estimate maximum relative yields and the date at which they occurred by setting the first derivative equal to zero and solving the equation. Approximate standard errors for the estimated dates were obtained using the method described in Stuart and Ord (1994). Estimated coefficients were compared using single degree of freedom contrasts. The estimated maximum relative yields and the optimum seeding dates for each location–era combination were compared using a two-sample t test with unequal variances. The optimum seeding periods were defined as the optimum predicted date plus or minus two standard errors.


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 
Relative grain yields, averaged across cultivars, for Arkansas and Louisiana are shown in Fig. 1 and 2. Analysis of the yield data using the four different regression equations (Table 1) showed that the constant and linear terms occasionally differed among eras and locations, but the quadratic term was the same for all eras and locations. The resulting equations predicted that maximum rice grain yields were generally produced with different optimum seeding dates between locations and between eras in Louisiana (Table 1). The optimum seeding date did not differ between eras at Stuttgart, AR. When comparing like eras, the optimum seeding periods for maximum yield production in Crowley, LA, were earlier than those predicted for Stuttgart, AR, which lies 481 km north of Crowley, LA. The optimum seeding dates, between the eras for each location, tended to be earlier for modern cultivars used in studies conducted in the 1990s. The predicted optimum seeding periods for modern cultivars grown in the 1990s were 16 February to 28 March (Day 47–87) at Crowley, LA, and 29 March to 26 April (Day 88–116) at Stuttgart, AR (Table 1). A 28- to 40-d period produced the highest grain yields at each location; however, 35 d separated the predicted optimum seeding dates for Crowley, LA, and Stuttgart, AR. Numerical yield losses <=10% of the predicted maximum were produced when rice was seeded by 22 April (Day 112) at Crowley, LA, and 26 May (Day 146) at Stuttgart, AR (Table 2). Cultivars grown in the 1960s and 1970s produced maximum yields when seeded from 15 March to 12 April (Day 74–102) at Crowley, LA, and 1 April to 7 May (Day 91–127) at Stuttgart, AR (Table 1).



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  		Fig. 1. The predicted (all data) and actual relative (RY) rice yields (by year averaged across cultivars) for Stuttgart, AR, and Crowley, LA, across seeding dates for studies conducted between 1966 and 1972.

 


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  		Fig. 2. Predicted (all data) and actual relative (RY) rice yields (by year averaged across cultivars) for Stuttgart, AR, and Crowley, LA, across seeding dates for studies conducted between 1993 and 2000.

 

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  		Table 1. Predicted optimum seeding dates for relative rice yields and the regression coefficients describing the relative yield response of rice to seeding date (day of year) for two eras at Stuttgart, AR, and Crowley, LA.

 

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  		Table 2. Predicted dates for the estimated numerical yield losses in 5% increments for rice cultivars grown during the 1990s seeded after the optimum date.

 
In Arkansas, progress statistics of rice planting and harvest show that seeding dates in commercial rice fields have not changed appreciably during the last 30 yr (Arkansas Agric. Statistics for 1984, 1985; Arkansas Agric. Statistics for 1996, 1997; National Agric. Statistics Service, 2002), but rice harvest consistently begins earlier now (Fig. 3). Modern cultivars are shorter in stature and generally require less time from emergence to maturity than the cultivars grown before 1984. Seeding–date studies conducted in the 1930s (Adair, 1940; Adair and Cralley, 1950; Jenkins and Jones, 1944) in both Louisiana and Arkansas often showed little or no consistent effect of seeding date on grain yields, whereas studies conducted between 1965 and 2000 have found significant differences in rice yields among seeding dates. Seeding progress statistics suggest that the average rice yield and total production could possibly be increased in Arkansas and Louisiana by seeding a larger percentage of the rice hectarage before the end of the optimum seeding periods. Approximately 32% of the Louisiana rice hectarage is seeded by 9 April and 78% of the Arkansas is seeded by 13 May, which are the predicted dates when <=5% yield loss occurs in each state (Table 2 and Fig. 3).



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  		Fig. 3. Comparison of rice planting and harvest progress for the 5-yr periods from 1969 to 1973, 1979 to 1983, and 1992 to 1996 in Arkansas (AR) (Arkansas Agric. Statistics for 1984, 1985; Arkansas Agric. Statistics for 1996, 1997) and Louisiana (LA) (National Agric. Statistics Service, 2002).

 
The average daily minimum and maximum air temperatures for the predicted optimum seeding dates for modern cultivars are 8 and 20°C, respectively, at Crowley (Day 67, or 8 March) and 11 and 24°C at Stuttgart (Day 102, or 12 April), respectively. The highest predicted yields at both locations occurred when rice was seeded and emerged when air temperatures were relatively cool and rice development was slow. The average air temperatures in Stuttgart, AR, on 24 March (Day 83) are similar to the air temperatures for the optimum seeding date (8 March, or Day 67) in Crowley, LA. Although our data do not define rice yield response when seeded too early, the literature shows that germination, seedling emergence, and subsequent seedling growth are very slow at soil temperatures <15°C (Yoshida, 1981; Yan, 1992). The mean daily soil temperature measured on bare soil at a 10-cm depth average about 16°C the first week of March in Crowley, LA, and the first week of April in Stuttgart, AR (National Climatic Data Center, 2002). Seeding rice before the predicted optimum periods would only lengthen the time between seeding and emergence; increase production costs from the use of recommended seed treatments, higher seeding rates, and a longer period for pest control; and possibly result in poor stand establishment (Slaton, 2001). Because environmental limitations restrict the time when rice stands can be successfully established or panicles can flower and fill grain, the primary emphasis of these data was to identify the rice yield response during the practical growing season at each of these locations. Table 2 shows the predicted dates when relative yields decrease in 5% increments for modern cultivars following the predicted optimum seeding date in the 1990s. An estimate of the optimum seeding dates for locations between Crowley, LA, and Stuttgart, AR, was calculated by dividing the north–south distance by the days between the predicted optimum seeding date for each location. The calculation estimates the optimum seeding date is delayed 1 d for every 14 km North of Crowley, LA.

Physiological development of rice has been successfully modeled using the growing degree-day concept (Keisling et al., 1984). The DD10 rice management computer program is used to predict crop development and as a crop management aid on 60% or more of the Arkansas rice land area (Slaton, 2001). The DD10 program contains the cumulative degree-day thresholds for the vegetative (emergence to 1.25 cm internode elongation, IE, commonly associated with panicle differentiation) and reproductive (1.25 cm IE to 50% heading) growth phases for most released rice cultivars in the Midsouth (Univ. of Arkansas Coop. Ext. Service, unpublished data, 2001). Although rice cultivars may have different cumulative degree-day thresholds, the number of accumulated degree-day units for development to specific growth stages (e.g., panicle differentiation and 50% heading) remains relatively constant for a given cultivar (Norman et al., 1999, 2000, and 2001), regardless of seeding date and year, because cultivars grown in the USA are not considered photoperiod sensitive (Adair et al., 1973; McKenzie et al., 1986).

The time between seeding and seedling emergence decreases as seeding date is delayed and soil and air temperatures increase (Faw and Johnston, 1975; Jodon and McIlrath, 1971; Norman et al., 2000). Similarly, the time between seedling emergence and heading declines as seeding date is delayed, but the accumulated number of growing degree-day units remains relatively constant (Norman et al., 1999, 2000, and 2001). The number of days between seedling emergence and 50% heading declined linearly in data published by Gravois and Helms (1998) and Hwang et al. (1998). Generally, the number of days between seedling emergence and 50% heading among modern rice cultivars, emerged on the same date, varies by <7 d (McKenzie et al., 1999; Slaton, 2001) and possibly explains why Gravois and Helms (1998) failed to find significant yield differences among rice cultivars with slightly different growing periods when seeded during late May and June in Arkansas. The length of the growing season is an important factor for consideration when seeding dates are so late that cool temperature or frost injuries are potential concerns.

Norman et al. (1998)(1999, 2000, and 2001) showed that seeding date primarily influences the length of the vegetative growth period (i.e., emergence to 1.25 cm elongation) of rice in Arkansas with early seeded rice requiring a greater number of days to accumulate the same number of degree-day units compared with later-seeded rice. For the seeding dates represented in the studies conducted in Arkansas, the reproductive growth phase occurred from mid-June through mid-August when daily maximum air temperatures were generally high (>=32°C), resulting in near maximum accumulation of growing degree-day units every day (Keisling et al., 1984). Thus, the number of days spent in reproductive growth were similar among all seeding dates (Norman et al., 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001). Assuming that temperatures are adequate for grain ripening, the length of the vegetative growth phase appears to have a significant effect on determining grain yield potential.

Jones and Snyder (1987) showed the daily solar radiation and climatic productivity index 25 d before flowering decreased as seeding date was delayed in Florida. Yield components indicated that the number of filled grains panicle-1 or filled grains m-2 declined as seeding date was delayed and were largely responsible for yield reductions in late-seeded rice (Jones and Snyder, 1987). Manipulation of the row width or seeding rate were not effective in increasing grain yields of late-seeded rice in Florida. Faw and Johnston (1975) found that total dry matter production and dry matter production after heading tended to decrease as seeding date was delayed. The biomass needed for production of high yields is apparently not produced at late seeding dates.


   SUMMARY
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
 
Rice grain yields in Arkansas and Louisiana declined as seeding was delayed past the optimum time. In general, the optimum seeding period for rice produced at Crowley, LA, occurred from mid-February through March, whereas the optimum seeding period at Stuttgart, AR, was during April. After these optimum periods, the rate of grain yield decline between Crowley, LA, and Stuttgart, AR, were similar for the two different eras. Yield decline followed a quadratic relationship. After the optimum seeding period, grain yield declined slowly, but the rate of yield decline increased as seeding date was delayed further. Daily maximum and minimum air temperatures at the two locations during the optimum seeding periods were comparable. The data also suggests that rice grain yields decrease as seeding date is delayed because the number of days spent in vegetative growth decreases.

The relationship between rice grain yield and seeding date for Stuttgart, AR, and Crowley, LA, showed that the optimum seeding period for currently grown cultivars at each of these locations occurred at different dates and was slightly longer (40 d) in south Louisiana than in central Arkansas (28 d). Compared with central Arkansas or northern Louisiana, the air temperatures in south Louisiana remain warmer for a longer period of time, which suggests that the optimum seeding period should be slightly longer. Current recommendations suggest that rice should be seeded between 20 March and 30 April in southwestern Louisiana (Linscombe et al., 1999b) and 10 April to 15 May in central Arkansas (Slaton, 2001). Based on our predictions using multiple years of data, the optimum seeding date recommendations should be changed to reflect the earlier as well as the shorter optimum seeding periods for each state.

Although the data presented in this manuscript do not provide a concrete explanation for why rice grain yields decrease from late seeding, the rice industry is provided with better decision making guidelines concerning yield performance as influenced by seeding date. Rice growers and consultants can make more informed decisions on whether to seed rice or another crop depending on the time of year and the expected crop yields. Although rice seeded early or during the optimum periods generally produces the highest yields, production costs may also be higher as expenditures associated with seed costs, weed control, and seasonal irrigation may increase due to a longer growing season. Growers should select the seeding date that generates the highest net income. Additional studies investigating specific crop management practices or cumulative environmental effects on rice grain and milling yield when seeded at different times are needed to provide growers with improved management practices for the production of late-seeded rice in the Midsouth.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
Appreciation is extended to the Arkansas and Louisiana Rice Research and Promotion Boards for financial support of this research. Special thanks is extended to Marvin Bennett, Danny Boothe, Dr. Sixte Ntamatungiro, and Chuck Pipkens for their work in maintaining research plots and collecting data at the Rice Research and Extension Center, Stuttgart, AR.


   NOTES
TOP
 NOTES
ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 
Published with the approval of the Director, Arkansas Agric. Exp. Stn., Manuscript #02013.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 SUMMARY
 REFERENCES
 




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