Agronomy Journal 93:1315-1320 (2001)
© 2001 American Society of Agronomy
PRODUCTION PAPER
Effects of Broiler Litter in an Irrigated, Double-Cropped, Conservation-Tilled Rotation
Gary J. Gascho*,a,
Robert K. Hubbardb,
Timothy B. Brennemana,
Alva W. Johnsonc,
Donald R. Sumnera and
Glendon H. Harrisa
a Dep. of Plant Pathology, Univ. of Georgia, Tifton, GA 31793-0748
b S.E. Watershed Res. Lab., USDA-ARS, Tifton, GA 31793-0748
c USDA-ARS, Crop Protection and Manage. Unit, P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 31793-0748
* Corresponding author (gascho{at}tifton.cpes.peachnet.edu)
Received for publication October 9, 2000.
 |
ABSTRACT
|
|---|
Broiler production is increasing rapidly in the Southern Coastal Plain, and little research has been conducted to evaluate broiler litter applications on the sandy soils of the region. We conducted a 4-yr field study to determine optimum rates of broiler litter, its economic value, changes in soil tests to a depth of 90 cm, and effects on pathogens and nematodes. Summer crops were cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] for grain, and peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Winter crops were wheat (Triticum aesitivum L.) and oilseed canola (Brassica napus L.). Litter rates were 0, 4.5, 9.0, and 13.5 Mg ha-1 for each crop. Litter application increased yields of cotton, pearl millet, wheat, and canola and decreased yield of peanut. Average crop value increase from application of a megagram of broiler litter was estimated to be $42 ha-1 yr-1 when the application was made to all crops and $68 ha-1 yr-1 when none was applied to peanut. The mean cost of applied litter was approximately $12 Mg-1. Surface soil P, K, Cu, Zn, and Mn were increased in direct relation to litter rate. Data indicate that it would be prudent to limit applications to about 4.5 Mg ha-1. Litter applications had little effect on soil nematodes, but Rhizoctonia limb rot (Rhizoctonia solani AG-4) of peanut increased. Lodging of canola, due to Sclerotinia spp., was doubled by any application of broiler litter.
|
INTRODUCTION
|
|---|
THE BROILER INDUSTRY has experienced rapid expansion in the Southern Coastal Plain of Georgia as well as in the coastal plain regions of other states in the Southeast. In 1999, Georgia produced 1.24 billion broilers with an estimated farm gate value of $3.27 billion, the greatest number and value of any state in the USA (Georgia Agric. Stat. Serv., 2000). Each broiler produces 1.13 kg of manure, resulting in 1.4 million Mg of litter generated annually. A primary reason for expansion of broiler production in the Southern Coastal Plain is the availability of cropland litter spreading. Data from previous studies that were mainly confined to the Southern Piedmont and mountain soils will likely not relate directly to the more sandy soils of the Southern Coastal Plain. Because broiler litter is applied and will continue to be applied to croplands, guidelines for the best use of the litter need to be assessed.
Much research has indicated that litter application is most effective when it is incorporated into the soil soon after application. However, conservation tillage does not allow for any (no-till) or allows for only partial (striptill) incorporation of litter. Other considerations involved when land-applying broiler litter are plant nutrition, pathogenic fungi, nematodes, environmental effects, and economics.
Broiler litter provides nutrition for crop plants but not necessarily the correct balance of nutrition required for top yield and quality. Providing litter for fertilization of ‘Coastal’ bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) (Sharpley et al., 1993), perennial tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) (Kingery et al., 1994), and corn (Zea mays L.) (Wood et al., 1996) resulted in application of excess P in relation to plant needs and accumulations of P in surface soils. Kingery et al. (1994) found that soil profile (0–60 cm) extractable P in long-term (15–28 yr) perennial tall fescue in the Sand Mountain region of Alabama was more than sixfold greater in soils that received broiler litter than in similar soils that received no litter. Application of P greater than plant utilization and its accumulation in surface soils is of environmental concern due to the potential for runoff and eutrophication of adjacent bodies of water (Moore et al., 1995).
Significant increases in soil NO3 have also been found due to broiler litter application at rates greater than plant needs. Excess soil NO3–N can also be leached to depths that depend on soil properties, rainfall, and irrigation. Wood et al. (1996) measured NO3 concentrations at 1 m that were directly related to the rate of application. Kingery et al. (1994) found elevated NO3 concentrations due to litter applications nearly to bedrock of their Sand Mountain sites. Sharpley et al. (1993) found most of the NO3 accumulation in an eastern Oklahoma site to be in the surface 5 cm. Soil pH and extractable K, Ca, and Mg increases are likely in soils receiving long-term, repeated applications of litter (Kingery et al., 1994), but such increases are not considered to have any detrimental significance to the environment. However, application of excess amounts of heavy metals is a concern when fertilizing with broiler litter. Sims and Wolf (1994) reported that As, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn occur in poultry diets and their wastes. When repeated applications of litter have been made, surface soils have high concentrations of Cu and Zn (Mitchell et al., 1992; Han et al., 2000) that can potentially contribute to runoff. Peanut, an important crop in the Southern Coastal Plain, is sensitive to high concentrations of soil Zn (Gascho and Davis, 1994).
Broiler litter may also increase soilborne pathogens such as Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp., and Pythium spp. (Hoitinik et al., 1997). Conversely, broiler litter can reduce the numbers of Meloidogyne incognita, a nematode detrimental to cotton (Riegel et al., 1996).
Most estimates of broiler litter value are based on its nutrient content. Mean concentrations of N, P, K, and Ca in broiler litter are estimated to be 33, 11, 17, and 20 kg Mg-1, respectively (Vest et al., 1994). Lesser contents of other secondary and micronutients may also be of value. In addition, the organic matter in the litter may improve soil quality, but that is difficult to quantify. Recently, Vervoot and Keeler (1999) estimated the price of broiler litter at $5.25 Mg-1 and the cost of transportation at $0.028 Mg-1 km-1. Given and Shurley (1995) estimate the cost of spreading litter at $6.35 Mg-1; therefore, the cost of transporting (
16 km) and applying litter was estimated to be <$12 Mg-1.
The objectives of this research were to (i) determine optimum application rates of broiler litter to an irrigated, conservation-tilled, intensive double-crop system in a sandy Coastal Plain soil; (ii) determine the gross economic value of the broiler litter based on crop response; (iii) determine changes in soil tests in the soil profile resulting from broiler litter application; and (iv) evaluate any effects of the litter on pathogens and nematodes.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS
|
|---|
A double-cropped, irrigated 3-yr rotation was conducted from 1996 to 2000 at the Coastal Plain Experiment Station in Tifton, GA (31°28' N, 83° W) on Tifton loamy sand (fine-loamy siliceous Plinthic Kandiudults). Surface soil (0–15 cm) pH (water) was 6.1 on 16 Apr. 1996, 2 mo after application of 1.8 Mg ha-1 dolomite. Mehlich-1 soil test P and K were 23 and 57 mg kg-1, respectively, and organic matter was 6 g kg-1. Both P and K were rated as medium (Plank, 1989). Calcium and Mg were 191 and 22 mg kg-1, respectively. Both are considered adequate (Plank, 1989). Cotton, runner-type peanut, and pearl millet for grain were planted in the spring. Wheat and canola for grain were planted in the fall. Following cotton, the plots were winter fallowed. All summer and winter crops were grown each year in the same cropping sequence (Table 1).
Broiler litter [manure and pine (Pinus palustris L. and P. elliotti L.) tree wood shavings] rates of 0, 4.5, 9.0, and 13.5 Mg ha-1 were broadcast 1 to 3 wk before both summer and winter crops in a randomized complete block design with four blocks. Plot size was 5.49 by 7.62 m (six rows of cotton, peanut, and millet and eight rows of wheat and canola). For the initial summer crops in 1996, the litter was broadcast on fallow soil, incorporated by disking, and planted. For the duration of the 4-yr experiment, winter crops were no-tilled and summer crops were in-row subsoiled and strip-tilled into residues remaining from the previous crop. No additional tillage was performed, and no commercial fertilizer was applied during the experiment. Irrigation was applied for full yield potential by a lateral-move sprinkler system. All crops were grown with best management practices.
Broiler litter used throughout the study originated from the same broiler houses but was stored in a covered stack house for variable amounts of time before transportation and application to the plots each spring and fall. Samples were analyzed for total N (Dumas method; Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982) and total concentrations of other elements by inductively coupled plasma analyses.
Crop yields were determined on the center one-third of the plots by mechanical harvests, using a cotton picker, a peanut combine, and a grain combine. Thereafter, the other two-thirds were harvested. Only harvested grains, peanut seeds and pods, and cotton lint and seeds were removed from the plots. The economic values of the crops were calculated from prices in the Southern Coastal Plain during the study. Economic value of litter was calculated as the gross economic response from crops for each megagram of litter applied.
Soil samples collected in February of each year from 0- to 15-, 15- to 30-, 30- to 60-, and 60- to 90-cm depth increments were analyzed for pH, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn. Only the analyses from 1997 and 2000 are included in this paper. The 1997 data were chosen because the initial samples in 1996 were collected before liming. Soil pH was determined in a 1:2 soil/water suspension after an equilibration period of 30 min. Phosphorus, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Zn were extracted by Mehlich-1 (Donohue et al., 1983). Phosphorus was determined by colorimetry and the other elements by atomic absorption spectroscopy (Donohue et al., 1983). Nitrate-N was extracted in 1 M KCl and determined by colorimetry (Keeney and Nelson, 1982). Soil organic matter was determined only in the 0- to 15-cm samples by the Walkley–Black titration method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982).
Both Rhizoctonia limb rot and stem rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) were evaluated in peanut immediately after the pods were dug and inverted. Incidence of stem rot (portion of 30.5-cm section of a linear row per plot with at least one diseased locus) and the severity of limb rot (portion of vines colonized by R. solani in six 0.6-m sections of a linear row per plot) were evaluated. Excessive lodging in canola harvested in 2000 prompted an evaluation of Sclerotinia spp. damage by counting the number of stems with lesions (girdling lesion or a large, easily visible, nongirdling lesion) immediately following harvest. Four counts of 25 plants were made in each plot.
To evaluate nematode populations, 20 soil cores, 2.5 cm in diam. by 12.5 cm deep, were collected each month in the two center rows of cotton, peanut, and millet plots. Soil cores from a plot were mixed, and nematodes were extracted from a 150-cm3 subsample by centrifugal flotation (Jenkins, 1964). Roots from 20 plants plot-1 were dug at harvest and examined and rated for galling by M. incognita on a scale of 1 to 5 (Barker et al., 1986).
Crop yield, economic value, and disease and nematode ratings were statistically analyzed by the ANOVA procedure as a randomized complete block design (SAS Inst., 1998). Soil data with depth were analyzed by the method of Cochran and Cox (1955), using a split-plot arrangement with subunits (depths) in strips. Means were separated by LSD (P = 0.05).
|
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
|
|---|
The mean N concentration in broiler litter used in this study (Table 2) was less than the N concentration in fresh litter reported by Vest et al. (1994). The difference was likely due to NH3 losses by volatilization during stacking. Total P, K, Ca, and Mg concentrations were also slightly less than those reported by Vest et al. (1994). In spite of the care to obtain uniform litter, analyses of the litter transported from the stack house before planting crops each spring and fall season varied considerably (Table 2). Such variability is inherent in litter due to differences in the ratios of manure to wood shavings, time of house cleaning, feed conversion, and length of time and temperature conditions for stacking. Because of the heterogeneous composition of broiler litter, precise analyses are often difficult to obtain and variation in analyses should be expected.
Increasing the litter rate from 0 to 9.0 Mg ha-1 increased cotton yields in 1996 and 1997. Rates >4.5 Mg ha-1 did not increase yields in 1998 and 1999 (Table 3). Grain yield of pearl millet increased to the 13.5 Mg ha-1 rate in 1996 and then either to the 4.5 or 9.0 Mg ha-1 rate thereafter. Peanut yield and value per hectare were decreased by broiler litter each year, except 1999. Wheat and canola yields were increased by litter to either the 9.0 or 13.5 Mg ha-1 rate each year (Table 4).
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 3. Yield and value of three summer crops in rotation and fertilized only with four rates of broiler litter over 4 yr.
|
|
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 4. Yield and value of two winter crops in rotation and fertilized only with four rates of broiler litter over 4 yr.
|
|
The gross economic value of a megagram of broiler litter for a given crop is presented in Table 5. Considering a cost of applied litter at $12 Mg-1 (Given and Shurley, 1995; Vervoot and Keeler, 1999), broiler litter was a valuable amendment for cotton; less valuable for millet, canola, and wheat; and detrimental for peanut. The objectives of this study did not include a comparison of the costs of nutrients in litter with those purchased as fertilizer. But, without any consideration of the potential value of other nutrients, application of litter could be justified on the basis of N alone. At the current cost of commercial fertilizer N (approximately $0.66 kg-1), N in litter could be purchased at a cost less than commercial fertilizer. For the rotation, litter value was greatest when 4.5 Mg ha-1 was applied for each crop. Application of 9.0 or 13.5 Mg ha-1 for each crop over the 4-yr period resulted in reduced value received per megagram of litter compared with the 4.5 Mg ha-1 rate. If no application had been made to peanut, the calculated value of a megagram of litter in the rotation increased from $42 to $68 ha-1 yr-1 where the 4.5 Mg ha-1 rate was applied to the other rotational crops. The economic calculations in this study are time dependent. The value of broiler litter application will vary with changes in crop prices, litter price, transportation cost, and application cost. In addition, broiler litter has some residual value. An investigation is ongoing to determine the residual value of broiler litter for crops in the rotation.
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 5. Unit economic value of broiler litter applied to individual crops, the rotation, and the rotation without peanut.
|
|
Soil analyses by depth in February 2000 indicate chemical alteration of the soil profile due to litter application (Table 6) and changes in soil test values from February 1997 to February 2000 (Table 7). Broiler litter also increased soil organic matter by 1.0, 2.4, and 2.5 g kg-1 in the surface 0 to 15 cm in 4 yr for the 4.5, 9.0, and 13.5 Mg ha-1 rates, respectively (data not shown). Litter application rate did not affect soil pH in the soil profile (0–90 cm). Increased soil pH has been obtained from broiler litter application in other studies (Han et al., 2000), but the Tifton soil is well buffered compared with some other Coastal Plain soils when the pH approaches neutrality (Gascho and Parker, unpublished data, 2000).
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 6. Effect of 4 yr of broiler litter application on nutrient concentrations and pH in soil in February 2000.
|
|
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 7. Effect of broiler litter on changes in nutrient concentrations and pH over a 3-yr period from February 1997 to February 2000.
|
|
Nitrate-N did not increase with litter rate for any of the depths sampled in 2000. Those results are different than those found by Kingery et al. (1994) and Wood et al. (1996) on other soils. The difference may be due to leaching of N, as we irrigated for greatest yield in this study. In a previous study on the Tifton soil, we found that NO3–N can leach and accumulate on a plinthite layer that can be as deep as 90 cm (Menezes et al., 1997). However, not all of the N was leached; in addition to plant uptake, some of the applied N was retained in the measured increase of soil organic matter. Mehlich-1 extractable Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Mn concentrations were increased by litter application only in the surface soil (0–15 cm).
Soil P increased with litter rate to 30 cm, and soil K increased to 60 cm. Of the elements analyzed, increasing concentrations of P and Zn in the surface soil with increasing litter rates (Tables 6 and 7) are the greatest concern. Soil P increases can lead to particulate P runoff from the Tifton soil (Gascho et al., 1998), and Zn increases are a concern because Zn is toxic to peanut when Mehlich-1 Zn is >12 mg kg-1 (Gascho and Davis, 1994). Raising soil pH can alleviate the toxicity, but concentrations >20 mg kg-1 will likely be toxic even at the pH values (6.8–6.9) in this study. Even though Zn concentrations did not approach toxicity levels in this study, increases of two- to sixfold indicate that long-term application at high rates could result in problems for peanut. The soil data support the current Georgia recommendation to limit broiler litter application rates to 4.5 Mg ha-1.
Peanut plant assessments at harvest indicated high incidences of stem rot that were not related to litter rate (data not shown). However, severity of Rhizoctonia limb rot increased with litter rate in 1998 and 1999 (Table 8). The increased severity may have been an important reason for decreased yield of peanut where litter was applied. Excessive lodging in the 2000 canola crop was due to Sclerotinia spp., and the incidence was related to broiler litter application. Plant damage was approximately doubled by any application of broiler litter, regardless of rate of application (Table 8). In spite of damage from Sclerotinia spp., canola yield was greatest for the 9 Mg ha-1 litter rate (Table 4).
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Table 8. Significant damage due to Rhizoctonia solani in peanut and Sclerotinia spp. in canola as related to broiler litter rate.
|
|
Nematode populations in all 4 yr and in the three summer crops were not great enough to show any depression by litter application (data not shown). Numbers of root-knot nematodes (M. incognita and M. arenaria) were low in cotton but slightly higher in millet and peanut. There were no galls on roots in any year. Numbers of stubby-root nematodes (Paratrichodorus minor) increased in cotton, millet, and peanut plots with the age of the rotation but not to population densities that were harmful. Likewise, populations of ring nematode (Mesocriconema ornata) were low. Overall, nematodes were not a problem in the plots and were not affected by rates of broiler litter application. A review of data from all 4 yr suggests that nematode populations were increasing, but there was no indication that broiler litter stimulated this increase.
|
SUMMARY
|
|---|
Broiler litter was a valuable amendment for cotton, pearl millet, wheat, and canola grown using conservation tillage. Application of litter to land before planting peanut decreased yield and economic value of that crop. Using the value of harvested crops, the value of a megagram of stack-house broiler litter added $42 ha-1 yr-1 to crop value when the currently recommended rate of 4.5 Mg ha-1 was applied to all crops and $68 ha-1 yr-1 when none was applied to peanut. Presently, litter near points of production can be obtained, transported, and applied for about $12 Mg-1.
Broiler litter application increased P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, and Cu concentrations in surface soil. Of these elements, P and Zn accumulations may result in problems in the long term. High concentrations of P in surface soil can add to P in water bodies via particulate P erosion and runoff, and high concentrations of Zn can result in toxicity in peanut.
Rhizoctonia limb rot damage in peanut was increased where litter was applied. That damage may have contributed to the decreased yield and value of peanut. Sclerotinia spp. damage (lodging) in canola was severe in plots amended with broiler litter in the final year of study, but yield was not affected. It would appear prudent to limit biyearly or even yearly broiler litter applications to about 4.5 Mg ha-1 and supply additional nutrient requirements with commercial fertilizers. Research to determine the residual effects of broiler litter on crops in the rotation is continuing.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
|
|---|
The authors are appreciative of the financial support provided by the U.S. Poultry and Egg Association and the Georgia Commodity Commissions for Cotton and Peanut. We also acknowledge the technical help provided by Benjie Baldree. We thank Dr. Daniel V. Phillips for estimating Sclerotinia spp. damage in canola.
|
REFERENCES
|
|---|
- Barker, K.R., J.L. Townshend, G.W. Bird, I.J. Thomason, and D.W. Dickson. 1986. Determining nematode population responses to control agents. p. 283–296. In K.D. Hickey (ed.) Methods of evaluating pesticides for control of plant pathogens. Am. Pathological Soc. Press, St. Paul, MN.
- Bremner, J.M., and C.S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitrogen—total. p. 595–624. In A.L. Page (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. 2nd ed. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA, Madison, WI.
- Cochran, W.G., and G.M. Cox. 1955. Experimental designs. 4th print. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
- Donohue, S.J., R.H. Brupbacher, R.A. Isaac, J.D. Landcaster, A. Mehlich, and D.D. Scott. 1983. Reference soil test methods for the southern region of the United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 289. Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
- Gascho, G.J., and J.G. Davis. 1994. Mineral nutrition. p. 214–254. In J. Smartt (ed.) The groundnut crop. Chapman and Hall, London.
- Gascho, G.J., R.D. Wauchope, J.G. Davis, C.C. Truman, C.C. Dowler, J.E. Hook, H.R. Sumner, and A.W. Johnson. 1998. Nitrate-nitrogen, soluble, and bioavailable phosphorus runoff from simulated rainfall after fertilizer application. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62:1711–1718.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service. 2000. Georgia poultry facts. Georgia Agric. Stat. Serv., Athens.
- Given, W., and D. Shurley. 1995. Crop enterprise cost analysis. Ext. Bull. 94-010s. Coop. Ext. Serv., Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
- Han, F.X., W.L. Kingery, H.M. Selim, and P.D. Gerard. 2000. Accumulation of heavy metals in a long-term poultry waste-amended soil. Soil Sci. 165:260–268.
- Hoitinik, H.A., A.G. Stone, and D.V. Han. 1997. Suppression of plant diseases by composts. Hortic. Sci. 32:184–187.[Free Full Text]
- Jenkins, W.R. 1964. A rapid centrifugal-floatation technique for separating nematodes from soil. Plant Dis. Rep. 48:692.
- Keeney, D.R., and D.W. Nelson. 1982. Nitrogen—inorganic forms. p. 643–698. In A.L. Page et al. (ed.) Methods of soil analysis., Part 2. 2nd ed. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA, Madison, WI.
- Kingery, W.L., C.W. Wood, D.P. Delaney, J.C. Williams, and G.L. Mullins. 1994. Impact of long-term land application of broiler litter on environmentally related soil properties. J. Environ. Qual. 23: 139–147.
- Menezes, R.S.C., G.J. Gascho, W.W. Hanna, M.L. Cabrera, and J.E. Hook. 1997. Subsoil nitrate uptake by grain pearl millet. Agron. J. 89:189–194.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Mitchell, C.C., S.T. Windham, D.B. Nelson, and M.N. Baltikausiki. 1992. Effects of long-term broiler litter application on coastal plain soils. p. 385–390. In J.P. Blake et al. (ed.) Proc. Natl. Poultry Waste Manage. Symp., Birmingham, AL. 6–8 Oct. 1992. Natl. Poultry Waste Symp. Committe, Auburn Univ. Print. Serv., Auburn, AL.
- Moore, P.A., T.C. Daniel, A.N. Sharpley, and C.W. Wood. 1995. Poultry manure management—environmentally sound options. J. Soil Water Conserv. 50:321–327.
- Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommers. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. p. 539–579. In A.L. Page et al. (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. 2nd ed. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA, Madison, WI.
- Plank, C.O. 1989. Soil test handbook for Georgia. Georgia Coop. Ext. Serv., Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
- Riegel, C., F.A. Fernandez, and J.P. Noe. 1996. Meloidogyne-incognita infested soil amended with chicken litter. J. Nematol. 28:369–378.
- SAS Institute. 1998. SAS user's guide. SAS Inst., Cary, NC.
- Sharpley, A.N., S.J. Smith, and W.R. Bain. 1993. Nitrogen and phosphorus fate from long-term poultry litter applications to Oklahoma soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57:1131–1137.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Sims, J.T., and J.T. Wolf. 1994. Poultry manure management: Agricultural and environmental issues. Adv. Agron. 52:1–83.
- Vervoot, R.W., and A.G. Keeler. 1999. The economics of land application of fresh and composted broiler litter with an environmental constraint. J. Environ. Manage. 55:265–272.
- Vest, L., W. Merka, and W.I. Segars. 1994. Poultry waste—Georgia's 50 million dollar forgotten crop. Leaflet 206. Coop. Ext. Serv., Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
- Wood, B.H., C.W. Wood, K.H. Yoo, K.H. Yoon, and D.P. Delaney. 1996. Nutrient accumulation and nitrate leaching under broiler litter amended corn fields. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 27:15–17.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
|
|
 
K. C. Reddy, S. S. Reddy, R. K. Malik, J. L. Lemunyon, and D. W. Reeves
Effect of Five-Year Continuous Poultry Litter Use in Cotton Production on Major Soil Nutrients
Agron. J.,
June 16, 2008;
100(4):
1047 - 1055.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Adeli, K.R. Sistani, D.E. Rowe, and H. Tewolde
Effects of Broiler Litter Applied to No-Till and Tillage Cotton on Selected Soil Properties
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.,
May 16, 2007;
71(3):
974 - 983.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. J. Wiatrak, D. L. Wright, and J. J. Marois
Evaluation of Tillage and Poultry Litter Applications on Peanut
Agron. J.,
July 1, 2004;
96(4):
1125 - 1130.
[Abstract]
[Full Text]
[PDF]
|
|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
