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SOIL AND CROP MANAGEMENT

Economics of Cropping Systems Featuring Different Rotations, Tillage, and Management

Dep. of Soil, Crop, and Atmospheric Sci., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA

wjc3{at}cornell.edu

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 
Economics is the dominant factor influencing the adoption of cropping systems. The objective of this 6-yr study was to determine profitability of cropping systems featuring four crop rotations (continuous corn (Zea mays L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]–corn, soybean–corn–corn, and soybean–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)/red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)–corn), three tillage systems (moldboard, chisel, and ridge) and two management input (high and low chemical) systems. The soybean–corn rotation under low chemical management resulted in the greatest net returns in chisel ($100 ha^-1) and moldboard plow tillage ($148 ha^-1) because the reduction in production costs ($110 ha^-1), associated with less fertilizer and pesticide costs in corn and less herbicide costs in soybeans, offset the reduction in gross returns ($72 ha^-1 in chisel and $38 ha^-1 in moldboard plow), associated with lower corn and soybean yields in chisel and lower corn yields in moldboard plow. Continuous corn under high chemical and soybean–corn–corn and soybean–corn rotations under low chemical management had similar net returns in ridge tillage ($33, $26, and $17 ha^-1, respectively). Growers who substitute soybean–corn and soybean–corn–corn (in ridge) rotations for continuous corn can maximize profits and reduce starter fertilizer use by 33 to 50%, N fertilizer by 60 to 70%, herbicides by about 60%, and insecticides by 65 to 100%. Growers who use moldboard plow tillage may realize maximum profits by adopting the soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotation under low chemical management if they market the wheat straw, a common practice in New York.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 
THE 1996 Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act decouples support payments from production. Consequently, farmers must select cropping systems based on expected market returns and risks associated with those returns (Young and Westcott, 1996). Cropping systems depend greatly on the mix and sequence of crops or crop rotations that farmers select (Francis and Clegg, 1990). Crop rotations, however, interact with tillage systems (Raimbault and Vyn, 1991) and management inputs (Riedell et al., 1998). An economic analysis of cropping systems that include different tillage, crop rotation, and management inputs can help farmers identify the most profitable cropping systems based on market prices.

Chase and Duffy (1991) reported that in an Iowa study, a moldboard plow tillage system had greater net returns ($338 ha^-1) than chisel ($324 ha^-1) and ridge tillage systems ($324 ha^-1) in continuous corn. In the soybean–corn rotation, chisel ($366 ha^-1) and moldboard plow tillage systems ($361 ha^-1) had greater net returns than ridge tillage ($321 ha^-1). Liu and Duffy (1996), however, reported that Iowa growers in 1992 and 1993 had greater average net returns in ridge ($106 ha^-1) compared with moldboard plow ($80 ha^-1) and chisel tillage ($68 ha^-1) in a soybean–corn rotation. Doster et al. (1983) also reported that ridge tillage had net returns equal to or greater than moldboard plow tillage and chisel tillage in continuous corn and soybean–corn rotations on major production soils in Indiana. Martin et al. (1991) reported that in another Indiana study, moldboard plow had slightly greater net returns than chisel tillage when averaged across continuous corn, soybean–corn, and soybean–wheat–corn rotations. Martin et al. (1991) also reported that farmers would optimize net farm income by selecting a soybean–corn rotation on about 55% of the land, continuous corn on about 30%, continuous soybean on about 10%, and soybean–wheat–corn on about 5% under both moldboard plow and chisel tillage. Zacharias and Grube (1984) reported that in an Illinois study, a soybean–corn–corn rotation had greater net returns ($286 ha^-1) compared with a corn–soybean–wheat rotation ($224 ha^-1) and continuous corn ($188 ha^-1) in the presence of herbicides. In the same study, the substitution of three cultivations for herbicides in corn and soybeans reduced net returns by about 55% when averaged across the three rotations.

An economic analysis should be the dominant factor for evaluating different cropping systems (Wesley et al., 1995). The objective of this study was to determine the economic consequences of 24 cropping systems that featured four crop rotations (continuous corn, soybean–corn, soybean–corn–corn, and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn), three tillage systems (moldboard plow, chisel, and ridge), and two management input levels (high and low chemical). Most previous crop rotation and tillage studies did not evaluate management input levels, so economic analyses of these studies did not identify which cropping systems can maintain or even increase profits with less chemical inputs. We varied management inputs from high to low chemical management to test the hypothesis that the more diverse cropping systems would result in similar or greater net returns under low vs. high chemical management.

	Materials and methods

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 
A 6-yr tillage x rotation x management study was conducted from 1992 to 1997 on a silt loam soil (fine loamy, mixed, mesic Aeric Haplaquept) at the Robert B. Musgrave Research Farm near Aurora, NY (42°45' N, 76°35' W). The 2-ha experimental site had been under chisel tillage since 1988 and had been planted to soybeans in 1991. Soil test values at the tile-drained experimental site in the fall of 1991 indicated a pH of 7.8 and medium values of P and K.

Experimental design was a randomized complete block design in a split-split plot treatment arrangement with four replications. Main plots, 55 m wide by 30 m long, consisted of three tillage systems (chisel, moldboard plow, and ridge). Subplots, 6.1 m wide by 30 m long, consisted of four crop rotations. Crop rotations included continuous corn, soybean–corn, soybean–corn–corn, and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn. All phases of each rotation were included, so a total of nine crops (five corn phases, three soybean phases, and one wheat phase) were planted annually. Sub-subplots, 6.1 m wide by 15 m long, consisted of high and low chemical management.

Crop management practices under high and low chemical management are described in more detail in a companion paper (Katsvairo and Cox, 2000) and are listed in Table 1 . All management inputs including seed, fertilizer, and herbicides were applied at recommended rates in high chemical management plots for continuous corn, soybean, and wheat (Cornell Recommends for Integrated Field Crop Management, 1998). Low chemical management plots in corn received only half the recommended sidedress N rate (67 kg N ha^-1) for continuous corn because previous studies indicated that preceding soybean and red clover crops could provide between 50 and 90 kg N ha^-1 to the subsequent corn crop (Bundy et al., 1993; Bruulsema and Christie, 1987). In wheat, we also applied half the recommended topdress N rate (33 kg N ha^-1) to the low chemical management plots to test the hypothesis that wheat would require less N when following soybeans in the rotation. Low chemical management plots in corn received banded herbicides at planting instead of preemergence and postemergence broadcast herbicides because Mt. Pleasant et al. (1994) reported that both weed control methods resulted in similar weed control and corn yields in New York. Also, low chemical management plots in soybeans received only half the recommended preemergence and postemergence broadcast herbicide rates because Martin et al. (1991) reported greater net returns in soybean when using reduced compared with full herbicide rates.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 2 Average custom rate costs from 1993 to 1997 for machinery operations and drying and hauling charges.

Crop yields and net returns were analyzed with the analysis of variance procedures using SAS statistical software (SAS Inst., 1991). We used a combined analysis across years because we were most interested in the 5-yr average rather than the annual variability, which is greatly influenced by fluctuations in weather patterns and crop prices. Mean separation among treatment means was obtained by Fisher's protected LSD, as described by Little and Hills (1978). Effects were considered significant in all statistical calculations if P 0.05.

	Results and discussion

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 
Corn yields had tillage x rotation, tillage x management, and rotation x management interactions (Table 3) . When averaged across years, first-year corn in soybean–corn–corn (8.9 Mg ha^-1) and corn in soybean–corn and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations (8.7 Mg ha^-1) under high chemical management yielded greatest in chisel tillage. In moldboard plow tillage, corn in the soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotation under high (9.6 Mg ha^-1) and low (9.2 Mg ha^-1) chemical management and corn in the soybean–corn rotation under high chemical management (9.3 Mg ha^-1) yielded greatest. In ridge tillage, first-year corn in soybean–corn–corn (8.2 Mg kg^-1) and corn in soybean–corn and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations under high chemical management yielded the greatest (8.2 and 8.0 Mg ha^-1, respectively). Corn yields in this experiment averaged 10 to 25% greater, depending upon tillage, rotation, and management systems, than typical farmer yields during the same 5-yr period (New York State Dep. of Agriculture and Markets, 1998).

Tillage and management systems affected wheat yields, and there was no tillage x management interaction (Table 3). When averaged across years and management systems, wheat yielded greatest under moldboard plow (3.8 Mg ha^-1) compared with chisel and ridge tillage (both 3.5 Mg ha^-1). After soybean harvest, wheat plots in moldboard plow and chisel tillage received the same single disc–cultipacker operation before planting. Consequently, tillage operations that occurred in the soybean and corn phases of the rotation must have contributed to the difference in wheat yield between chisel and moldboard plow tillage. Wheat yielded greatest under high chemical management (3.8 Mg ha^-1), which received a topdressing rate of 67 kg N ha^-1, compared with low chemical management (3.4 Mg ha^-1), which received 33 kg N ha^-1. In a previous study, Cox et al. (1989) reported that 67 kg N ha^-1 was the optimum N rate for wheat when following oats in the rotation under the environmental conditions of this study. Evidently, 67 kg N ha^-1 is close to optimum when wheat follows soybean in the rotation. Wheat yields in ridge and chisel tillage averaged about the same as typical farmer yields, but yields averaged about 10% greater in moldboard plow tillage during the 5-yr period (New York State Dep. of Agriculture and Markets, 1998).

Continuous corn under high chemical management had total production costs of about $900 ha^-1 in chisel and moldboard plow tillage and $865 ha^-1 in ridge tillage (Tables 4, 5, and 6) . Production costs for ridge tillage were less in part because of $20 to $25 ha^-1 less machinery costs, which is consistent with studies in Iowa in the 1980s (Chase and Duffy, 1991) and the early 1990s (Liu and Duffy, 1996). Net returns for continuous corn under high chemical management averaged $48 ha^-1 in moldboard plow, $33 ha^-1 in ridge, and $12 ha^-1 in chisel tillage (Tables 4, 5, and 6). In a previous study on New York farms, Cox et al. (1992) reported similar net returns in continuous corn between moldboard plow and ridge tillage systems. Chase and Duffy (1991), however, reported greater net returns in continuous corn for moldboard plow compared with ridge tillage systems, but similar net returns between moldboard plow and chisel tillage systems. The relatively low net returns for continuous corn under high chemical management, a common practice for New York cash crop producers because of the demand for corn by the dairy industry, indicate that continuous corn may not be a sustainable cropping system once government support payments are terminated.

Total production costs of corn averaged $120 to $210 ha^-1 less under low vs. high chemical management in all tillage–rotation systems because of less fertilizer and pesticide costs as well as less drying and hauling costs (Table 4, 5, and 6). Machinery costs for corn, however, averaged close to $10 ha^-1 greater for low vs. high chemical management in chisel and moldboard plow tillage because cultivation costs exceeded spray application costs by about $10 ha^-1. In ridge tillage, machinery costs averaged close to $10 ha^-1 less under low vs. high chemical management because spray application costs in high chemical management exceeded the additional cultivation costs (in 3 of the 5 yr) in low chemical management.

Net returns for continuous corn and the second-year corn phase of the soybean–corn–corn rotation under high chemical management exceeded net returns under low chemical management in all tillage systems because greater gross returns under high chemical management exceeded the savings in production costs under low chemical management (Tables 4, 5, and 6). In contrast, net returns for rotated corn under low chemical management exceeded net returns under high chemical management by $45 to $90 ha^-1 in moldboard plow and chisel tillage, except for first-year corn in the soybean–corn–corn rotation in chisel tillage. Furthermore, net returns for rotated corn under low chemical management exceeded net returns for continuous corn under high chemical management by $170 ha^-1 or more in moldboard plow and $120 ha^-1 or more in chisel tillage. In ridge tillage, however, net returns for rotated corn differed by only about -$15 to $30 ha^-1 between low and high chemical management because of relatively low yields and thus low gross returns for rotated corn under low chemical management. Apparently, growers who use moldboard plow or chisel tillage can greatly improve corn profitability while greatly reducing chemical inputs by substituting soybean–corn or soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations under low chemical management for continuous corn under high chemical management.

Total soybean production costs under high chemical management averaged about $550 ha^-1 in moldboard plow and chisel tillage, but only about $470 ha^-1 in ridge tillage because of $40 ha^-1 less machinery costs and $30 ha^-1 less pesticide costs in ridge tillage (Tables 7, 8, and 9) . Chase and Duffy (1991) reported about $30 ha^-1 less machinery costs, but about $25 ha^-1 greater pesticide costs for soybeans in ridge compared with chisel and moldboard plow tillage in an Iowa study. Liu and Duffy (1996), however, reported that soybean growers in Iowa had less pesticide costs in ridge tillage. Total soybean production costs did not differ much among rotations within tillage systems because all rotations received the same inputs (Tables 7, 8, and 9). Consequently, net returns of soybean under high chemical management in the soybean–corn–corn and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations exceeded net returns of soybean in the soybean–corn rotation because of greater yields and thus gross returns. In fact, soybean production in the soybean–corn rotation under high chemical management was not profitable in any tillage system. In another study in New York, however, soybeans in a soybean–corn rotation under high chemical management had net returns of $135 ha^-1 (Singer and Cox, 1998).

Total production costs in wheat averaged about $540 ha^-1 under high chemical management in chisel and moldboard plow tillage and averaged $525 ha^-1 in ridge tillage (Tables 7, 8, and 9). Total production costs under high chemical management averaged about $15 ha^-1 less in ridge compared with moldboard plow and chisel tillage because of $30 ha^-1 less machinery costs, which were offset somewhat by an additional $15 ha^-1 in seed costs. Wheat had negative net returns under all tillage and management systems, which is consistent with a previous study in New York (Singer and Cox, 1998). Wheat in New York, however, is generally a profitable crop because most growers bale and market the straw to local dairy producers, which results in an additional $180 ha^-1 in net returns (Singer and Cox, 1998). Wheat had less net returns under low vs. high chemical management in all tillage systems because the $25 ha^-1 reduction in fertilizer costs did not offset the $50 to $65 ha^-1 loss in gross returns. In contrast, Munn et al. (1998) reported $19 ha^-1 greater net returns for wheat, which did not receive topdress N or herbicides, compared with wheat, which received 62 kg N ha^-1 and postemergence herbicides in a 5-yr study in Ohio.

Net returns for crop rotations had tillage x rotation and rotation x management interactions (Table 10) . Continuous corn had the least net returns among rotations in chisel and moldboard plow tillage systems. In chisel tillage, the soybean–corn rotation had the greatest net returns, which is consistent with the findings of Chase and Duffy (1991). The soybean–corn rotation had $39 ha^-1 greater net return under low vs. high chemical management ($100 ha^-1 vs. $61 ha^-1, respectively) because the reduction in production costs, associated with less fertilizer and pesticide costs in corn and less herbicide costs in soybean, offset less gross returns. Consequently, growers who use chisel tillage under similar environmental conditions of this study can greatly reduce chemical inputs while maximizing profits by adopting a soybean–corn rotation under low chemical management.

The soybean–corn–corn rotation had greater net returns when compared with the soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotation and continuous corn in ridge tillage. Ridge compared with moldboard plow tillage had less net returns, especially in soybean–corn, soybean–corn–corn, and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations under low chemical management. Consequently, ridge tillage may not be the best tillage system to use for sustainable cropping systems, which emphasize crop rotations and the reduction of chemical inputs, under the environmental conditions of this study. Smolik et al. (1995) also suggested that a corn–soybean–spring wheat rotation under ridge tillage may not be sustainable in northeastern South Dakota. Ridge tillage, however, had the greatest crop residue on the surface among tillage systems in all years of the study (Katsvairo, 2000), which could result in less sediment pollution. The soybean–corn–corn and soybean–corn rotations in ridge tillage under low chemical management had similar net returns as continuous corn under high chemical management. Consequently, growers who use ridge tillage under the environmental conditions in this study can greatly reduce chemical inputs while maintaining similar net returns by substituting either rotation under low chemical management for continuous corn under high chemical management.

	Conclusion

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 
Continuous corn under high chemical management, which has been a common cropping system for New York cash crop producers because of demand for corn by the dairy industry, resulted in the least net returns in chisel and moldboard plow tillage. New York cash crop producers who use moldboard plow and chisel tillage should eliminate continuous corn because it is the least profitable and has the greatest potential for environmental degradation associated with fertilizer N and pesticide use. A soybean–corn rotation under low chemical management resulted in the greatest net returns in chisel and moldboard plow tillage. Growers who use moldboard plow and chisel tillage should substitute a soybean–corn rotation under low chemical management for continuous corn under high chemical management, which could reduce starter fertilizer use by 50%, N fertilizer use by about 70%, herbicide use by about 60%, and insecticide use by 100%. Growers who use moldboard plow tillage should also consider the soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotation under low chemical management because this cropping system may result in the greatest profitability if the growers bale and market the wheat straw, a common practice in New York. Also, the soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotation adds a green manure crop and more crop diversity to the rotation, which may improve soil quality (Karlen et al., 1992) and reduce potential pest problems, particularly corn rootworm (Diabrotica spp.), which has become adapted to the soybean–corn rotation in parts of the midwestern USA.

Ridge tillage had much less net returns when compared with moldboard plow tillage, especially in soybean–corn, soybean–corn–corn, and soybean–wheat/red clover–corn rotations under low chemical management. Nevertheless, ridge tillage had the greatest residue on the surface among tillage systems, which makes it the best adapted tillage system on highly erodible lands. The soybean–corn–corn and soybean–corn rotations under low chemical management had the same net returns as continuous corn under high chemical management in ridge tillage. Growers who use ridge tillage can thus maintain net returns by substituting either rotation under low chemical management for continuous corn under high chemical management, which would reduce starter fertilizer use by 33 to 50%, N fertilizer use by about 60 to 70%, herbicide use by about 60%, and insecticide use by 67 to 100%.Lueschen Ford Evans Kanne Hoverstad Randall Orf Hicks 1992; Mt. Pleasant Burt Frisch 1994; New York Agricultural Statistics Service 1998; SAS Institute 1991

Received for publication May 10, 1999.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Conclusion REFERENCES

 

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This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Free Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (8) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Katsvairo, T. W. Articles by Cox, W. J. Search for Related Content PubMed Articles by Katsvairo, T. W. Articles by Cox, W. J. Agricola Articles by Katsvairo, T. W. Articles by Cox, W. J. Related Collections Economics Crop Rotation Systems Other Crop Management Other Cropping Systems Other Soil Management Tillage