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NUTRIENT CYCLING

Soil Nitrogen Dynamics and Maize Production in Municipal Solid Waste Amended Soil

^a Dep. of Natural Resource Sciences and Landscape Architecture, H.J. Patterson Hall, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
^b Dep. of Crop Science, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801 USA

geriksen{at}wam.umd.edu

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) can enhance soil organic matter and crop nutrient supply. High C:N ratio composts can temporarily deplete plant-available soil N reserves, requiring supplemental N fertilization to ensure optimum crop growth. The objective of our research was to measure seasonal soil NO₃–N dynamics to serve as an indication of N mineralization, immobilization, and leaching as affected by MSWC and N fertilizer rates. The MSWC (C:N 40:1) was applied in one year only to a Galestown sand (sandy, siliceous, mesic Psammentic Hapludults) at rates of 0, 63, 126, and 189 Mg ha^-1. Maize (Zea mays L.) was planted and N fertilizer rates of 0, 168, 336, 504, and 672 kg ha^-1 were applied as split-plot treatments. First-year maize total dry matter production plateaued at the 250 kg ha^-1 N rate, averaged across MSWC rates. Soil NO₃–N decreased inversely proportional to MSWC rates, due to MSWC immobilization of soil and fertilizer N. Cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) winter cover crop total dry matter yield and total crop N increased linearly with increasing MSWC rates. Second-year maize total dry matter, total plant N, maize grain yield, and grain N increased linearly with increased MSWC rates applied the first year. During the second growing season, there was an increasing supply of plant-available N, due to mineralization of organic N in the MSWC with increasing MSWC rate; however, the supply of mineralized N was inadequate to meet crop growth requirements for maximum maize yield.

Abbreviations: MSW, municipal solid waste • MSWC, municipal solid waste compost

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
THE AMOUNT

of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated annually in the USA has more than doubled over the past 30 years, amounting to more than 186 million tonnes in 1993 (USEPA, 1995). The number of active landfills in the USA decreased from about 8000 in 1988 to about 3090 in 1996. This decrease has been due in part to old landfills reaching their capacity, and also to the costs of more restrictive site management requirements (Goldstein, 1997).

Municipal solid waste compost is manufactured from the organic fraction of the MSW stream. Land application of MSWC, an alternative to conventional landfill disposal, allows for the recycling of nutrients, and produces a relatively low-cost product that can be used as a soil amendment in agriculture, horticulture, and land reclamation (Diaz et al., 1993). The USEPA estimates that 30 to 60% of a community's MSW can be processed as MSWC (USEPA, 1994). The U.S. agriculture industry is the largest potential user of MSWC, with a potential annual use of more than 800 million cubic meters, amounting to more than 10 times the potential U.S. production of MSWC (USEPA, 1993; Slivka et al., 1992).

The composition of MSWC varies due to seasonal and geographic variations in the quality of the waste stream, climatic differences, method of composting, and degree of compost maturation. In-field N mineralization rate is dependent on many factors, including the composition and C:N ratio of the compost, as well as soil type, pH, and climatic conditions.

Field crop responses to MSWC amendments vary widely, from N deficiency in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) (Clark et al., 1995) to 22% yield increases for snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (Ozores-Hampton and Bryan, 1993) and 38% yield increases for tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) (Maynard, 1995). Similarly, N mineralization rates of MSWC-amended soils from incubation studies have differed considerably, ranging from negligible mineralization rates (Sanchez et al., 1997) to recovery of 22% of MSWC N (Hadas and Portnoy, 1997).

The addition of MSWC to soil can increase organic matter (Cortellini et al., 1996; Maynard, 1995), cation exchange capacity (Paino et al., 1996), soil water holding capacity (Turner et al., 1994; Serra-Wittling et al., 1996), pH of acidic soils (Maynard, 1995), and soil microbial (Rothwell and Hortenstine, 1969) and enzymatic activities (Serra-Wittling et al., 1996) in the soil and can decrease soil bulk density (Turner et al., 1994).

It has been observed that application of MSWC may lead to the immobilization of soil mineral N (Duggan, 1973; Beloso et al., 1993) and can cause N deficiencies in plants and depress crop yield (Clark et al., 1995). Supplemental fertilizer N, in excess of that necessary to satisfy crop demand, may be necessary to obtain a suitable C:N ratio favorable to crop growth (Sims, 1990).

The effective use of MSWC in agricultural production systems requires information on the net impact of MSWC on soil N mineralization or immobilization. We need to be able to manage MSWC amendments to provide sufficient N to meet crop demands while preventing the leaching of excess NO₃–N to groundwater. The first objective of our research was to measure seasonal soil NO₃–N dynamics, to serve as an indication of N mineralization, immobilization, and leaching as affected by MSWC and N fertilizer rates. Since the amount of available soil NO₃–N originating from the mineralization of MSWC is governed by soil microbial activity, the second objective was to determine the effects of MSWC and N fertilizer application rates on soil respiration and N mineralization under controlled environmental conditions and to use this information as a tool in interpreting the data from the field study.

	Materials and methods

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Field Study
The field experiment was conducted from December 1994 through 1996 at the University of Maryland's Central Maryland Research and Education Center, Beltsville, on a Galestown sand (sandy, siliceous, mesic Psammentic Hapludults). This site was selected because the soil is excessively well drained and prone to NO₃–N leaching. The surface (0–15 cm) soil pH was 6.4 determined in distilled water with a glass electrode (1:1 soil/H₂O) and contained 14.9 g kg^-1 total organic matter determined by loss on ignition at 360°C. The soil contained 0.6 g kg^-1 total N and 9.0 g kg^-1 total C (dry wt. basis) as determined by Leco dry combustion method (Leco Corp., 1986). Soil bulk density was determined for each of four soil depths using the core method described by Blake and Hartge (1986), and particle size analysis was determined by the pipette method (Gee and Bauder, 1986) (Table 1) .

A second year's maize crop was no-till planted on 2 May 1996. All plots received a uniform subsurface band fertilization of 22.4 kg N ha^-1 as urea–ammonium nitrate solution (300 g N kg^-1) at planting. On 31 May 1996, the split plots (N rates) within the main plots (MSWC rates) that did not previously receive MSWC were divided into two paired subplots (6.1 by 4.6 m). One of the two paired subplots received a broadcast application of 22, 45, 67, 90, or 179 kg N ha^-1 as NH₄NO₃, and the other subplot received no N fertilizer. These treatments were designed to generate N-response curves for maize biomass and grain yields against which we could compare yields resulting from the mineralization of soil organic N in the MSWC-amended treatments.

Plant Sampling and N Analysis
For maize grain and biomass, 6.1-m lengths from the two center rows of the six-row split plots were sampled. Plant population was determined from sampling areas prior to harvest. Maize biomass and plant N accumulation were determined at the R6 growth stage (Ritchie and Hanway, 1982). Maize grain yields were determined by hand-harvesting in September 1995 and 1996. The cereal rye cover crop was sampled on 25 Apr. 1996. A 1-m² frame was randomly placed near the center of plots, parallel to drill rows, and the aboveground biomass from that area was sampled. Plants were oven-dried at 60°C until constant dry weight (72 h) for biomass and N concentration determination. Maize and rye plant tissue and maize grain samples were finely ground through a Wiley mill (1-mm screen) and analyzed for total N and C by Leco dry combustion method (Leco Corp., 1986).

Soil Sampling and Analysis
Soil samples were collected at five stages of the maize production cycle: (i) prior to planting; (ii) when maize was 30 cm high; (iii) at tasseling; (iv) at grain harvest; and (v) in early winter. At each soil sampling date, six cores (3.5 cm diam.) were composited from each split plot at depth increments of 0 to 15, 15 to 30, 30 to 60, and 60 to 90 cm. Soil samples either were immediately oven-dried at 32°C or frozen at -10°C and oven-dried at a later date. After drying, soil samples were ground to pass a 2-mm sieve and stored in sealed polyethylene bags for lab analysis. Soil NO₃–N concentration was determined by Technicon automated analyzer (Technicon Instrument Corp., 1977b) in 1 M KCl extracts (1:10 soil/extractant, 0.25 h of shaking). Soil NO₃–N accumulation in kg ha^-1 was calculated for each soil depth using the measured soil NO₃–N concentration of each sample and measured bulk densities.

Statistical Analysis
Analyses of variance were performed on soil NO₃–N data and on maize and rye cover crop responses to MSWC applications using the PROC MIXED procedure in SAS (Littel et al., 1996). The PROC NLIN procedure in SAS was used to obtain the quadratic plus plateau model used to describe maize and rye cover crop responses to N fertilizer applications (SAS, 1992).

Soil Incubation Study
Two rates of MSWC, 0 or 280 mg 100 g^-1 soil (dry wt. basis) and three N rates, 0, 7.5, or 15 mg 100 g^-1 soil (as KNO₃) were used in a randomized complete block design with two replications to investigate C and N mineralization rates in a soil incubation study. These treatment rates correspond to approximate field application rates of 0 or 126 Mg ha^-1 MSWC (fresh wt. basis) and 0, 168, or 336 kg N ha^-1, respectively. The soil was collected from the surface 15 cm from the previously described field site, air-dried, and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The MSWC was the same as used in the field study.

The six MSWC and N fertilizer treatment combinations were thoroughly incorporated into 100 g of soil in 250-mL Erlenmeyer flasks. The soil–treatment mixtures were adjusted to -10 kPa soil moisture potential, as determined by a pressure plate method (Cassel and Klute, 1986), with distilled CO₂–free water or KNO₃ solution made with distilled CO₂–free water (Zibilske, 1994). The incubation flasks were randomly placed in an incubation chamber and connected to a manifold system supplying continuous aeration with CO₂–free air. The design was similar to that described by Zibilske (1994). Temperature was maintained at constant 20°C. The effluent air stream was bubbled through 60 mL of 1 M NaOH solution in 100-mL Erlenmeyer flasks for CO₂ removal.

Soil Sampling and CO₂–C, NO₃–N, and NH₄–N Analysis
Total CO₂–C, collected in the NaOH flasks, was determined by the addition of an excess of 1.5 M BaCl₂, followed by titration with standardized HCl using a phenolphthalein indicator (Zibilske, 1994). Four empty incubation flasks were included as controls, to adjust for atmospheric CO₂ absorption.

A second set of soil–treatment mixture flasks were prepared for each soil–treatment combination and randomly placed on the manifold for the determination of soil NO₃–N and NH₄–N concentrations. These flasks were removed at predetermined time periods of 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 wk. Soils were removed from the flasks, oven-dried at 32°C, and stored in sealed polyethylene bags for lab analysis. Soil NO₃–N and NH₄–N concentrations were determined by a Technicon automated analyzer (Technicon Instrument Corp., 1977a) in 2 M KCl extracts (1:10 soil/extractant, 1 h shaking).

Statistical Analysis
Analysis of variance was performed on soil NO₃–N concentrations using the PROC MIXED procedure in SAS (Littel et al., 1996). The CO₂ evolution data were analyzed by using the PROC GLM procedure in SAS to determine and contrast the linear coefficients for the slopes of the cumulative CO₂ evolution curves (Littel et al., 1991).

	Results and discussion

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Maize Response to MSWC and N
The large volume of MSWC incorporated into the surface 15-cm soil layer did not affect maize seed germination and seedling emergence (data not shown). Visual assessment at about one month after planting, however, revealed considerable differences in color, size, and vigor among plants under the various MSWC treatments. Plants in plots that received MSWC and no N fertilizer were stunted and pale, compared with plants in the control plots and plots that received MSWC and N fertilizer. This suggests that addition of MSWC resulted in early-season immobilization of soil N. At the end of the season, however, we observed no significant differences in maize total biomass, total biomass N content, maize grain dry yield, or maize grain N content across MSWC rates. Thus, the apparent early-season N deficiency did not persist through the season and did not affect crop productivity.

Nitrogen fertilizer treatments were applied in 1995 only, so year x N fertilizer rate interactions were expected and observed. In 1995, a quadratic-plus-plateau model described the effects of N fertilizer rate on maize total biomass, total biomass N content, and maize grain N content (Fig. 1) . This model is similar to that used by Cerrato and Blackmer (1990) to describe maize yield responses to N fertilizer. Maize total biomass, total biomass N content, and maize grain N content responses to N fertilizer plateaued at the 158, 250, and 257 kg N ha^-1 application rates, respectively, averaged across all MSWC rates (Fig. 1). No response to N fertilizer was observed for maize grain yield.

View larger version (29K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1 Maize biomass and grain responses to N fertilizer rates in 1995

View larger version (28K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2 Maize biomass and grain responses in 1996 to municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) treatments applied in December 1994. DM, dry matter

For both years, maize total biomass and grain yields across all MSWC and N rates were lower than normally expected under conventional management for this site. For 1995, this was attributed to lower than normal precipitation from July through September, which resulted in 121 mm less rainfall than the 30-yr average for these months. During 1996, crop growth was dependent upon the mineralization of soil organic N inherent to or previously immobilized by the MSWC applied 18 mo earlier. Maximum maize biomass (13.8 Mg ha^-1) and maize grain yields (4.6 Mg ha^-1) in 1996 were obtained with application of 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC (Fig. 2). These levels of biomass and grain production corresponded to application rates of 51 and 58 kg N ha^-1, respectively, from comparison with the grain yield response to N fertilization rate curves determined from the subplots in 1996. The amount of N mineralized from the MSWC in 1996 was only about one-third of that needed to satisfy crop growth requirements.

Cover Crop Response to MSWC and N
In 1995, a cereal rye winter cover crop was planted following maize grain harvest. Rye plants from plots that received no MSWC were smaller, paler, and exhibited less tillering than plants growing on MSWC-amended plots.

Both rye cover crop total dry matter and total N content increased linearly with increasing rate of MSWC (Fig. 3) . This suggests that MSWC N mineralization resulted in a greater pool of plant-available N during the winter and spring months subsequent to application.

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3 Cereal rye cover crop total dry matter (DM) and total plant N content responses to municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) treatments applied in December 1994. Rye was harvested in April 1996

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4 Cereal rye cover crop total dry matter and total plant N content responses to N fertilizer rates applied in 1995. Rye was harvested in April 1996

In May 1995, except for the zero fertilizer N control treatment, measured soil NO₃–N in the profile for the 0 and 63 Mg ha^-1 MSWC application rates was nearly equivalent to the amount of applied fertilizer N. For the 126 and 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC application rates, soil NO₃–N was lower than applied fertilizer N rates. This suggests greater immobilization of fertilizer N with increased MSWC loading rate.

Mean total soil NO₃–N was lower in July than in May, due to plant uptake and continued N immobilization by MSWC treatments (Table 2). Again, declining quantities of soil NO₃–N in the sampling profile with increasing MSWC application rates suggest continued increased immobilization of fertilizer N with increased MSWC application rates. Mean total soil NO₃–N in late September 1995 continued to decline; however, the earlier observed reduction in measured soil NO₃–N with increased MSWC rates was no longer evident. In mid-December 1995, 1 year after MSWC application, soil NO₃–N was low, and there were no significant differences in mean total soil NO₃–N among MSWC rates (Table 2). Significantly lower mean total soil NO₃–N in December than in September was due to the combined effects of NO₃–N leaching, plant uptake by the rye cover crop, and immobilization by soil microorganisms. Measured soil NO₃–N in the profile showed no relationship to the amount of maize fertilizer N applied 6 months earlier. Between September and December 1995, the research site received 360 mm of rainfall. Since denitrification losses on a Galestown sand are presumed to be minimal (due to its sandy nature) and cover crop N uptake was insignificant (given the small plant size), it is probable that the majority of soil NO₃–N present in the soil in late September was leached beyond the sampling depth prior to the December sample collection.

There were no observed differences in soil NO₃–N in the depth of MSWC incorporation (0–15 cm) during 1995. In May and July 1995, at the 15- to 30-cm and 30- to 60-cm depths, soil NO₃–N decreased with increased MSWC rates (Table 3) . As soil NO₃–N declined toward the end of the growing season (Sept. 1995), the effect of MSWC application rate on soil NO₃–N diminished. The increased immobilization of soil NO₃–N with increased rates of MSWC in the surface soil appears to have resulted in less downward movement of soil NO₃–N through the profile. Soil NO₃–N at depth was not significantly different in December 1995 and April 1996 (data not shown).

In mid-July and late September 1996, mean total soil NO₃–N increased with increasing rate of MSWC applied in December 1994 (Table 2), suggesting greater N mineralization as MSWC application rate increased.

By July 1996, the soil immobilization–mineralization equilibrium had shifted, and MSWC mineralization resulted in increased soil NO₃–N at the 30- to 60-cm and 60- to 90-cm depths with increased MSWC application rates (Table 3). After maize grain harvest in late September 1996, soil NO₃–N at the 0- to 15-cm and 15- to 30-cm depths increased with increased MSWC rates. This was because crop depletion of surface soil NO₃–N had ceased as MSWC mineralization continued.

Figure 5 shows differences in soil NO₃–N at depth between sampling dates for treatments receiving either 0 or 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC and either 168 or 336 kg ha^-1 fertilizer N in 1995. At the 168 kg N ha^-1 rate, no significant differences in soil NO₃–N between the two MSWC treatments were observed (Fig. 5a and b), although a trend for lower soil NO₃–N deeper in the profile was observed for the MSWC-amended soils. At the 336 kg N ha^-1 rate, soil NO₃–N was significantly lower for the 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC application rate in May and July at the 15- to 30-cm depth, in May at the 30- to 60-cm depth, and in September at the 60- to 90-cm depth, indicative of MSWC immobilization of fertilizer N (Fig. 5c and 5d). When NO₃–N was present in excess of crop demand, potential leaching was reduced by MSWC application. The combination of 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC and 336 kg ha^-1 fertilizer N produced soil NO₃–N levels at depth similar to those in soil amended with 168 kg N ha^-1 alone, the recommended maize N fertilizer rate (Fig. 5). This suggests that, with a high rate of MSWC application (189 Mg ha^-1), a recommended N fertilizer rate of 168 kg N ha^-1 greater than the standard recommendation for maize may provide sufficient plant-available N for maximum grain production. To accurately predict additional N needs, yield response curves from multiple sites over a number of years and from composts of different qualities are needed.

View larger version (40K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5 Soil NO3–N at depth for 1995 for the zero and highest municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) treatments and two N fertilizer rates. Error bars indicate LSD (0.05)

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6 Cumulative CO2–C evolved for the six municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) treatments during laboratory soil incubation. Legend: Open symbols, 0 MSWC + N fertilizer at 0 (circles), 168 (squares), or 336 (triangles) Mg ha-1, corresponding to 0, 7.5, and 15 mg N 100 g-1 soil. Solid symbols, 126 Mg ha-1 MSWC (corresponding to 280 mg 100 g-1 soil) + N fertilizer at 0 (circles), 168 (squares), or 336 (triangles) kg ha-1. Error bar indicates LSD (0.05)

Soil NH₄–N concentrations were very low and constant (4 mg NH₄–N kg^-1) for all treatments throughout the incubation (data not shown). Mean total soil NO₃–N concentration was significantly lower for the MSWC-amended soils (28.8 mg kg^-1) than for the non–MSWC-amended soils (82.5 mg kg^-1), and mean total soil NO₃–N concentrations increased with increasing N fertilizer application rates (Fig. 7) .

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 7 Soil NO3–N concentrations for the six municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) treatments during laboratory soil incubation. Legend: Open symbols, 0 MSWC + N fertilizer at 0 (circles), 168 (squares), or 336 (triangles) Mg ha-1, corresponding to 0, 7.5, and 15 mg N 100 g-1 soil. Solid symbols, 126 Mg ha-1 MSWC (corresponding to 280 mg 100 g-1 soil) + N fertilizer at 0 (circles), 168 (squares), or 336 (triangles) kg ha-1. Error bar indicates LSD (0.05)

The laboratory incubation results for soil NO₃–N and CO₂ evolution indirectly confirm that the addition of MSWC caused an increase in number or activities of soil microorganisms, which in turn utilized available soil and fertilizer N to meet their growth demands. The quantity of N immobilized was not different for Treatments 126–168 and 126–336, and the amount of CO₂ evolution and soil respiration rates between these treatments were not significantly different. While the lower N fertilizer rate (168 kg N ha^-1) was sufficient for maximum MSWC decomposition, the soil mineral N pool was depleted. Doubling the amount of N fertilizer applied (336 kg N ha^-1) provided sufficient N for both the support of microbial decomposition of MSWC and maintaining NO₃–N concentrations in the soil similar to that of the soil treated with 168 kg N ha^-1 and no MSWC. These results suggest that in a field cropping system where 126 Mg ha^-1 MSWC is applied, an increase of N fertilizer rate by 168 kg N ha^-1 would be needed to create a reserve of soil N available for plant uptake.

	Summary and conclusions

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Materials and methods Results and discussion Summary and conclusions REFERENCES

 
Both the field and the laboratory incubation studies suggest that approximately 168 kg N ha^-1 was sufficient to meet the N demands of the increased microbial populations in soils amended with MSWC at 126 Mg ha^-1, while generating little residual plant-available NO₃–N. The immobilized fertilizer N remained effectively unavailable for the duration of the first growing season, and subsequent mineralization during the second year after application of 189 Mg ha^-1 MSWC supplied approximately one-third of maize N needs. The crop growth responses were similar to those of Clark et al. (1995). They observed reduced yields in the first crop following the application of MSWC, while subsequent crops had greater yields on MSWC-amended soil than on nonamended soil. Measured soil NO₃–N over 2 years supports the existence of a N immobilization–mineralization cycle as a result of MSWC application; however, this is not always the case. Other research has shown crop yield increases following MSWC applications just prior to planting. Variations in MSWC composition, C:N ratio, soil type, pH, and climatic conditions will influence the rate of N mineralization and crop response.

Soil sampling revealed downward movement of NO₃–N from the time of initial N fertilization through the growing season and during the months following grain harvest. Perhaps by applying fertilizer N in split applications, which would allow for a more uniform increase in microbial activity, total MSWC immobilization of applied fertilizer N would have been greater. By reducing the amount of soluble mineral N in the soil at any single time, split fertilizer applications would also decrease the risk of NO₃–N leaching by a particularly heavy rainfall event. Agronomic utilization of MSWC can help reduce the amount of municipal solid waste landfilled each year and, by recycling valuable nutrients, MSWC production and use has a small yet important role to play in the improvement of our environment. Research on managing split N fertilizer applications on MSWC-amended soil and on incorporation of fertilizer N into MSWC prior to land application merits future investigation.SAS Institute 1992

Received for publication June 22, 1998.

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