Published online 1 September 1999
Published in Agron J 91:737-743 (1999)
© 1999 American Society of Agronomy
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Agronomy Journal 91:737-743 (1999)
© 1999 American Society of Agronomy
DRYLAND CROPPING SYSTEMS
Hybrid and Nitrogen Influence on Pearl Millet Production in Nebraska
Yield, Growth, and Nitrogen Uptake, and Nitrogen Use Efficiency
Nouri Mamana,
Stephen C. Masona,
Tom Galushaa and
Max D. Clegga
a Dep. of Agronomy, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915 USA
smason1{at}unl.edu
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ABSTRACT
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Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is a staple grain crop in the arid and semiarid regions of Africa and India, and a new grain crop in the USA. A 2-year field experiment was conducted near Mead, NE, in 1995 and 1996 on a Sharpsburg silty clay loam (fine, smectitic, mesic Typic Argiudoll) soil with approximately 29 g kg-1 organic matter, 35 kg ha-1 NO3–N, and pH of 6.0. The objective was to determine the influence of hybrid and N on grain yield, dry matter accumulation and partitioning, and growth rates throughout the growing season. Nitrogen concentrations, uptake, and use efficiency were also determined. Treatments were a factorial combination of the pearl millet dwarf hybrids (59022A x 89-0083, 1011A x 086R, and 1361M x 6Rm) and N levels (0 and 78 kg ha-1) in a randomized complete block design. Two plants per plot were sampled at 2-wk intervals and partitioned into plant parts, dried, weighed, and analyzed for N concentration. Applied N increased grain yield by 0.4 to 0.5 Mg ha-1, but had only a small effect on dry matter accumulation and partitioning. Hybrid differences were small for grain yield. Pearl millet dry matter accumulation increased cubically in both years, with maximum crop growth rates among hybrids ranging from 0.48 to 0.57 g m-2 per growing degree day (GDD) in 1995 and ranging from 1.9 to 3.1 g m-2 GDD-1 maximum in 1996. The relative growth rate among hybrids declined from 0.012 to 0.020 g-1 m-2 GDD-1 in both years to near zero at physiological maturity. Nitrogen concentrations were higher during the vegetative stages and decreased with plant age. Applied N decreased N use efficiency for aboveground biomass (NUE1) by 18 to 25 g DM g-1 N, and N use efficiency for grain (NUE2) by 7 to 12 g grain g-1 N. Environmental variability due to years had a greater effect on yield, growth, and N levels than hybrid and applied N.
Abbreviations: GDD, growing degree day • CGR, instantaneous crop growth rate • RGR, instantaneous relative growth rate • NUE1, aboveground biomass nitrogen use efficiency • NUE2, grain nitrogen use efficiency
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INTRODUCTION
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PEARL MILLET is commonly grown in the arid and semiarid regions of Africa and India as a staple food for millions of people. It is particularly adapted to nutrient-poor soil and low rainfall conditions, yet it is capable of rapid and vigorous growth under favorable conditions (Maiti and Bidinger, 1981). Pearl millet is a potential alternative grain crop for areas of the Great Plains with sandy soil, low rainfall, and a short growing season since dwarf hybrids with good yield potential have been developed. A better understanding of pearl millet growth and its N concentration and accumulation is necessary to improve pearl millet grain yield and promote its adoption by farmers in the Great Plains.
Growth rate is a physiological trait associated with increased grain yield in cereal crops. Growth is generally a function of environmental factors (such as temperature and solar radiation) and mineral nutrition, along with genotype and production practices. General aspects of growth and development of pearl millet plants were reported by Maiti and Bidinger (1981) and Bramel-Cox et al. (1984). Dry matter accumulation by pearl millet under different management conditions have been reported in Africa (Azam-Ali et al., 1984), Australia (Coaldrake and Pearson, 1985), and India (Craufurd and Bidinger, 1989; Carberry et al., 1985).
Mineral nutrition is one of the most important factors affecting plant productivity (Clark, 1990), and N is the major nutrient required by pearl millet. Pearl millet is usually managed with low fertilizer input, and has shown variable growth and yield response to N application (Gascho et al., 1995). Coaldrake and Pearson (1985) reported that growth of pearl millet was reduced by low N supply, and maximum growth rate before panicle initiation was achieved at a whole-plant N concentration of 15.6 g kg-1 during vegetative growth and 13 g kg-1 after panicle initiation. Alagarswamy and Bidinger (1987) found that increased N application decreased N use efficiency. Gregory (1979) found that N concentration in pearl millet stems and leaves increased with water stressed, but decreased when P application was increased from 0 to 56 g m-2.
Studies on dwarf pearl millet growth in the Great Plains have not previously been reported and little is known about pearl millet growth rates, N concentrations, and N accumulation. Further study on dry matter production and N accumulation and partitioning as influenced by genotype and management practices is needed. Our objective was to determine the influence of pearl millet hybrid and applied N on grain yield, dry matter accumulation and partitioning, crop and relative growth rates, and N concentration, accumulation, and partitioning throughout the growing season.
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Materials and methods
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A 2-year experiment was conducted at the University of Nebraska Agricultural Research and Development Center near Mead, NE, during the 1995 and 1996 summer growing seasons under rainfed conditions. The soil at the experimental site was a Sharpsburg silty clay loam (fine, smectitic, mesic Typic Argiudoll) with approximately 29 g kg-1 organic matter, 35 kg ha-1 residual NO3–N, and pH of 6.0. The area was disked, field-cultivated, and roller-packed prior to planting in both years to assure good seed-to-soil contact at planting. Plots were 12 rows wide, with row spacing of 76 cm and length of 9.12 m.
Treatments consisted of factorial combinations of three pearl millet hybrids with N levels of 0 and 78 kg N ha-1 as NH4NO3 in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The three pearl millet hybrids (and their maturity classifications) were 59022A x 89-083 (60–62 d to flowering), 1011A x 086R (66–68 d to flowering), and 1361M x 6Rm (72–74 d to flowering). Pearl millet was planted on 19 June 1995 and 13 June 1996. The target plant population was 148260 plants ha-1, and the evaluated plant population 12 d after planting was 98700 plants ha-1 in 1995 and 114900 plants ha-1 in 1996. Nitrogen was band-applied beside rows and hand-incorporated 2 wk after planting. Weed control was done by cultivation, herbicide application [0.4 L ha-1 bentazon, 3-(1-methylethyl)-(1H)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide)], and hand hoeing. Three rows, 3.04 m long, were harvested for grain yield by hand on 7 Nov. 1995 and 3 Oct. 1996. Grain yield was calculated based on threshed grain weight and corrected to 125 g kg-1 water content.
Data Collection and Analysis
A functional approach to dry matter harvesting was used in which frequent small samples were collected rather than infrequent larger samples to facilitate curve fitting (Hunt, 1982). Two plants per plot were harvested at 2-wk intervals from the four-leaf stage until physiological maturity. Plants were separated into leaf, stem, and panicle and dried at 65°C for 48 h to determine dry matter accumulation and partitioning. After weighing, plant parts were ground to pass through a 1-mm sieve, thoroughly mixed and analyzed (by Ward Lab., Inc., Kearney, NE) for N concentration using combustion method 990.03 (AOAC, 1990). Daily high and low temperature, precipitation, and potential evapotranspiration data were obtained from a University of Nebraska automated weather station located approximately 1 km from the experimental plots.
Pearl millet hybrids selected in temperate climates are little affected by photoperiod; thus, growth occurs largely in response to heat. Growing degree days (GDD) were calculated using a base temperature of 12°C (Ong, 1983; Ong and Monteith, 1985). Daily GDD accumulation was calculated by subtracting the base temperature from daily average temperature [(maximum temperature + minimum temperature)/2] and then summed from the date of planting to the date of each sampling. Pearl millet dry matter accumulation per unit area was fitted with logit, logistic, Gompertz, and cubic polynomial equations as a function of GDD. Since the logit, logistic, and Gompertz equations did not fit the data better, cubic polynomial equations are presented here and were used to calculate instantaneous crop growth rates (CGR) and instantaneous relative growth rates (RGR) using guidelines presented by Hunt (1982), Allison (1971), and Wilson et al. (1973). The CGR was calculated as the first derivative of the cubic polynomial equation for dry matter accumulation as
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where P is ground area, W is dry weight, and T is time as GDD. The RGR was calculated as
Nitrogen uptake was determined by multiplying dry weight of plant parts by N concentration then summing over parts for total plant uptake. Nitrogen use efficiencies (NUE) as defined by Maranville et al. (1980) were calculated for aboveground biomass NUE
and grain
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The data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separation was done using single degree of freedom orthogonal contrasts determined using the general linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS (SAS, 1988). Analyses were done for individual years, since heterogeneity of variances occurred across years.
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Results and discussion
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Climatic Effects and Grain Yield
During the two years of the experiment, rainfall was below the 30-year long-term average, with 375 mm occurring in 1995 and 431 mm in 1996 between May and October (Table 1)
. In 1995, excessive rainfall of more than 100 mm above the 30-year average occurred in late May and early June, but with no rainfall the first 3 wk after planting. In 1996, rainfall occurred before and after planting. As a result, stand establishment (data not shown) and grain yield (Table 2)
were much greater in 1996 than in 1995. Pearl millet often produces similar yields over a range of plant population, due to more productive tillers per plant at low than high plant populations (Carberry et al., 1985; Craufurd and Bidinger, 1989). In this study, however, little compensation in tiller number occurred, as the number of panicles per unit area was two times higher in 1996 than in 1995 (Table 2) when the stand was lower. Maximum temperatures in 1995 averaged 5°C greater in July and August, and 1.4°C higher in September, than in 1996. Potential evapotranspiration values based on temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation were greater in 1995 than 1996, suggesting that greater water stress was present during the 1995 growing season.
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Table 1 Monthly daily average minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation, and potential evapotranspiration for the 1995 and 1996 growing seasons, with the long-term norm (30-year average), at the University of Nebraska Agriculture and Development Center, Mead, NE
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Table 2 Grain yield and number of panicles for three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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Application of 78 kg N ha-1 increased grain yield by 0.4 Mg ha-1 in 1995, and 0.5 Mg ha-1 in 1996, with no interaction of N rate with hybrid occurring (Table 2). This limited increase in pearl millet grain yield to applied N was consistent with N rate studies in Africa (Bationo et al., 1990; Payne et al., 1995), in India (Havanagi and Hedge, 1983), and in the USA (Maranville and Sirifi, 1995; Limon-Ortega et al., 1998; Gascho et al., 1995). Maranville and Sirifi (1995) and Limon-Ortega et al. (1998) found 0.5 Mg ha-1 yield increase as the N rate increased from 0 to 78 or 150 kg ha-1 in years with adequate seasonal rainfall. Gascho et al. (1995) found a linear increase in pearl millet grain with N application ranging from 0 to 80 kg N ha-1 on a sandy soil. The variable response of pearl millet to applied N is attributed mostly to environmental factors such as rainfall, residual soil N content, and in some cases P availability (Payne et al., 1995).
Grain yield differences among hybrids occurred in 1996, with the early-maturity hybrid 59022A x 89-0083 having the highest grain yield and the late-maturity hybrid 1361M x 6Rm having the lowest grain yield despite producing greater number of panicles per unit area (Table 2). Although not found to be significant, this trend for number of panicles per unit area was also present in 1995.
Dry Matter Accumulation and Partitioning
Total seasonal dry matter accumulation increased cubically in 1995 and 1996 for all three hybrids (Fig. 1a
and 2a). Dry matter accumulated later into the growing season in 1996 than in 1995 when the green leaf area was visually present later into the growing season. In both years, dry matter accumulation differences among hybrids occurred late in the growing season. In 1995, the medium-maturity hybrid 1011A x 086R accumulated the greatest dry matter; in 1996, 1011A x 086R and the early-maturity hybrid 59022A x 89-0083 accumulated the greatest dry matter. The growth patterns reported here contrast with those reported by Bramel-Cox et al. (1984), who found a linear phase of growth from planting until flowering. Dry matter accumulation after flowering varied among hybrids, consistent with Bramel-Cox et al. (1984), who found variable growth ranging from decreasing to increasing between flowering and physiological maturity depending on genotype and environment. Applied N increased grain yield (Table 2) but did not influence whole-plant dry matter accumulation (data not shown).
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Fig. 1 (a) Dry matter accumulation and (b) crop growth rate for pearl millet hybrids at Mead, NE, in 1995 (open diamonds, 590221 x 89-0083; solid diamonds, 1011A x 086R; open triangles, 1361 x Rm). Each data point is the mean of four plants. Error bars indicate ± 1 SE
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In 1995, the CGR of 1011A x 086R increased up to 0.57 g m-2 at 700 GDD after planting, then declined as it approached physiological maturity (Fig. 1b). The other two hybrids reached peak CGRs of 0.48 g m-2 at 600 GDD for the early-season hybrid 59022A x 89-0083 and 700 GDD for the late-season hybrid 1361M x 6Rm. Growth rates for all hybrids were low, due to soil and climatic conditions (Table 1). In contrast, in 1996 CGRs were much higher for all hybrids, due to near-ideal production conditions; maximum CGRs occurred approximately 100 GDDs later, and the latest maturing hybrid had the higher CGR (Fig. 2b)
. Calculated RGRs during early growth were unreliable, due to the small amount of dry matter present combined with artifacts associated with fitting the cubic polynomial equations. At 400 GDD after planting, contrasting hybrid differences were found in 1995 and 1996 (Table 3)
. In 1995, the late maturing hybrid 1361M x 6Rm had the greatest RGR and the early maturing hybrid 59022A x 89-0083 the lowest RGR, with the opposite true in 1996. Although the two years had very different production environments (Table 1), grain yield (Table 2), and dry matter production (Fig. 1 and 2), RGRs averaged across hybrids were similar. In all cases, the RGR peaked early in the growing season, and declined to near zero at physiological maturity. Hybrid differences disappeared as the RGR values neared zero (Table 3). Decrease in RGR with plant age has been reported for pearl millet by Coaldrake and Pearson (1985), and by Evans (1972) for maize (Zea mays L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), and wild diploid tree cotton (Gossypium arboreum L.).
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Fig. 2 (a) Dry matter accumulation and (b) crop growth rate for pearl millet hybrids at Mead, NE, in 1996 (open diamonds, 590221 x 89-0083; solid diamonds, 1011A x 086R; open triangles, 1361 x Rm). Each data point is the mean of four plants. Error bars indicate ± 1 SE
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Table 3 Relative growth rates of three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity as influenced by growing degree days (GDD) accumulated after planting at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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The pattern for dry matter partitioning was similar for all hybrids and N rates (data not presented), but varied between years (Fig. 3)
. In the lower grain yield year of 1995, percent leaf and stem dry matter increased linearly from planting until 888 GDD after planting, then declined, while the panicle and whole-plant dry weight increased greatly. Potentially, a proportion of stem and leaf dry matter were translocated during grain fill in 1995, but visually more leaves were lost because of senescence in 1995, whereas in 1996 most leaves remained green until physiological maturity. The relative distribution of dry matter among panicle, stem, and leaf at physiological maturity in both years was approximately 50, 30, and 20% of the total, which is similar to values reported by Maiti and Bidinger (1981) for high-yielding dwarf varieties in India.
Nitrogen Concentration, Accumulation, and Use Efficiency
Applied N increased leaf, stem, and panicle N concentration in 1996 (Tables 4, 5, and 6)
. In 1995, applied N increased N concentration of the panicle, but had little effect on leaf (Table 4) and stem (Table 5) N concentrations. Hybrid differences were present in 1995 only at 672 GDD after planting, with the medium-maturity hybrid 1011A x 086R having higher leaf N concentration (Table 4). In 1996, the late-maturity hybrid 1361M x 6Rm had higher leaf (Table 4) and stem (Table 5) N concentration than the two other hybrids at 1001 GDD after planting. Nitrogen concentrations were higher for all plant parts in 1996 than in 1995 early in the growing season. Stems had an average N content of 8.6 g kg-1 in 1995, compared with 30.9 g kg-1 in 1996 (Table 5), and panicles had an average N content of 17.6 g kg-1 in 1995 and 36.9 g kg-1 in 1996 (Table 6). Nitrogen concentrations declined throughout the growing season for leaves and stems in both years. Lower N concentration in the more stressful 1995 growing season is similar to what Gregory (1979) found, that N concentration was lower in water-stressed pearl millet, while Payne et al. (1995) reported contrasting results. In this study, averaged across hybrids, average leaf and stem N concentrations at 0 and 78 kg N ha-1 at 672 GDD in 1995 were 12.5 and 13.0 g kg-1 in 1996, and 24.0 and 28.0 g kg-1 at 406 GDD after planting in 1996. These N concentrations were adequate for maximum growth during vegetative and reproductive growth stages in 1996 (Coaldrake and Pearson, 1985), but in 1995 were adequate during vegetative growth but limiting after panicle initiation. This is probably one reason for the low dry matter and grain yield in 1995 (Table 2), along with environmental effects on growth (Table 1).
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Table 4 Leaf N concentration at different growth stages (sampling dates) of three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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Table 5 Stem N concentration at different growth stages (sampling dates) of three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity grown at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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Table 6 Panicle N concentrations for three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity grown at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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Nitrogen accumulation increased from 3.2 to 4.2 g m-2 in 1995, and from 11.5 to 18.9 g m-2 in 1996 with application of 78 kg N ha-1. The late-maturity hybrid 1361M x 6Rm had the lowest N accumulation of 2.7 g m-2 in 1995 and 12.7 g m-2 in 1996. The other hybrids accumulated 3.9 g m-2 in 1995 and 16.5 g m-2 in 1996. Nitrogen accumulation by leaves reached an average maximum of 1.63 g m-2 at 888 GDD and then decreased to 0.79 g m-2 at physiological maturity (1116 GDD) due to leaf senescence and translocation of N to grain in 1995. In 1996, an average maximum of 6.19 g m-2 N accumulation by leaves was reached at 860 GDD. Stems had less N accumulation than leaves during vegetative growth stages, and the panicle had more N accumulation during grain fill. According to Gregory (1979), a large portion of the N within the growing grain must be supplied by translocation from other plant parts. Whole-plant N accumulation reached a maximum of 3.6 g m-2 in 1995 and 17.2 g m-2 in 1996. Since hybrid and N rate had little effect on N concentration of plant parts, N accumulation closely followed dry matter accumulation (Fig. 1a and 2a), with maximum dry matter accumulation occurring at or near physiological maturity. Although N accumulation was more than four times greater in 1996 than in 1995, relative N accumulation among plant parts was similar, with 23 to 27% of total in the leaves, 10 to 12% in the stems, and 60 to 67% in the panicles.
Nitrogen application rate reduced whole-plant and grain NUE of pearl millet in both years (Table 7)
, as previously reported by Alagarswamy and Bidinger (1987). Nitrogen use efficiencies were similar across years, even though temperature, precipitation, and potential evaporation varied (Table 1). Sirifi (1993) found similar results, but Payne et al. (1995) reported that water stress generally reduced shoot NUE when N was broadcast incorporated prior to planting. They attributed this to dry matter production decreasing more than N concentration increased. Hybrid differences were found only for grain NUE in 1996, with the late-maturing hybrid 1361M x 6Rm having lower grain NUE (associated with lower grain yield) than other hybrids (Table 2).
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Table 7 Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) for three pearl millet hybrids differing in maturity grown at Mead, NE (1995 and 1996)
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Conclusion
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This study provides base-line information on the growth of dwarf pearl millet hybrids in the Great Plains of the USA in two contrasting production years. Since all pearl millet hybrids had similar dry matter and N accumulation patterns in this study, it appears that producers should select hybrids with the highest yield potential. Nitrogen fertilizer application increased pearl millet grain yield and N concentration of plant parts; thus, producers need to assure that adequate N is present. The largest pearl millet differences for all parameters studied was due to environmental conditions across years, which altered stand establishment, growth, tillering, and N concentration of plant parts.SAS Institute 1988
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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The authors appreciate the assistance of Dr. Wallace W. Wilhelm, ARS-USDA, Lincoln, NE, in calculation of CGRs and RGRs for the growth analysis.
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NOTES
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Paper no. 12259 of the Journal Series of the Nebraska Agric. Res. Div. Contribution of the Univ. of Nebraska–Lincoln Dep. of Agronomy. Research supported by USAID Grant no. DAN 1254-G-0021 through INTSORMIL, the International Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Program.
Received for publication June 4, 1998.
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REFERENCES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
