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Published in Agron J 100:261-270 (2008)
DOI: 10.2134/agrojnl2007.0120
© 2008 American Society of Agronomy
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CROPPING SYSTEMS

Dolomite and Phosphogypsum Surface Application Effects on Annual Crops Nutrition and Yield

Rogério P. Soratto* and Carlos A. C. Crusciol

São Paulo State Univ. (UNESP), College of Agricultural Science, Dep. of Crop Science, Lageado Experimental Farm, P.O. Box 237, 18610-307, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

* Corresponding author (soratto{at}fca.unesp.br).


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Brazil has extensive area with acid soils. Using phosphogypsum and soil acidity tolerant cultivars are alternatives to crop establishment in no-till system without previous limestone incorporation in many agricultural soils of Brazil. However, it remains unknown how phosphogypsum and limestone surface application affects rice (Oryza sativa L.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) nutrition and yield under a no-till system. A field experiment was conducted in a sandy clay loam, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Haplorthox, previously cultivated under conventional tillage, in Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil. Treatments included four dolomitic limestone rates (0, 1100, 2700, and 4300 kg ha–1), two phosphogypsum rates (0 and 2100 kg ha–1), and two upland rice cultivars (Caiapó and IAC 202), in 2002–2003, and two bean cultivars (Pérola and Carioca), in 2003–2004. Both amendments were applied on the surface, without soil incorporation. The content of Ca, Mg, and Mn in flag leaves and rice yield increased with limestone surface application. Liming increased the shoot dry matter of IAC 202 rice. Phosphogypsum increased S contents in leaves of both rice cultivars, and resulted in higher grain yield in the Caiapó rice. Liming increased K contents in leaves of both bean cultivars. In the absence of phosphogypsum, liming increased S contents and grain yield of bean. Content of Mg in leaves was reduced by phosphogypsum in lower limestone rates. In phosphogypsum presence, liming reduced Zn contents in leaves and increased bean shoot dry matter. Phosphogypsum increased Ca and S, and reduced Mg contents in bean leaves. Using soil acidity tolerant cultivars promoted higher crop yields in no-till systems establishment, even when the effective soil amelioration had not yet been achieved.

Abbreviations: CEC, cation exchange capacity • ECCE, effective calcium carbonate equivalence • LR, limestone rate • PR, phosphogypsum rate


   NOTES
TOP
 NOTES
ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
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   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
IN BRAZIL, approximately 70% of the country contains acid soils, which often results in low yields because of Al and Mn toxicity and low availability of exchangeable bases (Olmos and Camargo, 1976; Ritchey et al., 1982). Acidity amelioration is very important in these soils for adequate crop growth.

Liming is commonly used to neutralize soil acidity and restore the production capacity, increase nutrient availability, and reduce the levels of toxic elements (Pavan and Oliveira, 2000; Caires et al., 2001). In conventional tillage systems, limestone is incorporated into the soil through plowing and disking. However, this procedure is against the principle of minimal disturbance of soil in a no-till system, which is one of the most effective strategies to maintain soil agricultural sustainability in tropical and subtropical regions (Pires et al., 2003; Caires et al., 2005). Conversely, because the effects of liming are limited to where the limestone is applied (Pavan and Oliveira, 2000), not incorporating may reduce the contact surface between limestone particles and soil colloids. As a result, surface liming has a slower effect in reducing subsoil acidity (Pöttker and Ben, 1998; Meda et al., 2002; Caires et al., 2005).

Surface application of phosphogypsum, which is a phosphoric acid industry by-product, is composed mainly of calcium sulfate (CaSO4 · 2H2O), and is more soluble than limestone. It is therefore an alternative to improve root environment in subsoil, and can be used in acid soils as a complement to liming (Caires et al., 2003). In Brazil alone, some 4.5 Tg are produced each year (Vitti, 2000). Phosphogypsum applied on the soil surface moves into the soil profile under the influence of water percolation (Caires et al., 1999). As a consequence, an increase in the Ca supply and a subsoil Al toxicity reduction are obtained (Caires et al., 1999; Caires et al., 2003). However, despite the great potential of phosphogypsum, there are still questions regarding the conditions in which crops respond to surface application of phosphogypsum in combination with liming at the establishment of a no-till system.

Another strategy to achieve satisfactory yields with soil amendments surface applied at the establishment of no-till systems is the use of soil acidity tolerant species. Upland rice can be an interesting option, because it is adapted to such conditions (Fageria, 2000). In seeking Al tolerant genotypes, plant breeders select cultivars with improved root development in acid soils (van Raij et al., 1998). Even in species like rice, there are cultivars with different Al stress and liming responses (Fageria, 1982; Ferreira et al., 1986; Duarte et al., 1999).

There are also common bean cultivars with varying responses to liming (Vale, 1994; Parra and Moda-Cirino, 1996; Silva, 2002), which can be used in the period in which the limestone applied to the surface has not yet ameliorated acidity, especially in subsoil. However, there is practically no information on the response of rice and common bean crops to the surface application of limestone and phosphogypsum at the establishment of no-till systems.

This work was undertaken to evaluate dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum surface application effects on nutrients concentration in leaves and grain yield of upland rice and common bean cultivars, at no-till system establishment, in the tropical region of Brazil.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
The experiment was performed in Botucatu, São Paulo State, in southeast Brazil (48°23' W; 22°51' S). The location altitude is 765 above sea level. Daily rainfall was registered during the experiment (Fig. 1 ).


Figure 1
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  		Fig. 1. Rainfall (mm d–1) at the experimental area at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, during the period from December to April in the agricultural years of (a) 2002–2003 and (b) 2003–2004.

 
The soil is classified as kaolinitic, thermic Typic Haplorthox, with sandy loam texture, and was fallow for 2 yr before the study. In October 2001 pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] was sowed. At the beginning of the experiment the topsoil (0–20 cm) showed the following chemical (van Raij et al., 2001) and textural characteristics: organic matter, 20.9 g dm–3; pH (1:2.5 soil/CaCl2 suspension 0.01 mol L–1), 4.2; P (resin), 9.2 mg dm–3; exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg 0.12, 1.4, and 0.5 cmolc dm–3, respectively; total acidity in pH 7.0 (H + Al) 3.7 cmolc dm–3, cation exchange capacity (CEC) 5.8 cmolc dm–3; base saturation 37%; sand, silt, and clay contents of 54, 11, and 35%, respectively. In the subsoil (20–40 cm) clay content was 36%.

The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with split-split-plots and four replications. Plots (5.4 by 18.0 m) comprised four dolomitic limestone rates (0, 1100, 2700, and 4300 kg ha–1). Subplots (5.4 by 9.0 m) comprised two phosphogypsum rates (0 and 2100 kg ha–1). Subsubplots (2.7 by 9.0 m) comprised two upland rice cultivars (Caiapó and IAC 202) in the agricultural year 2002–2003, and two common bean cultivars (Pérola and Carioca) in the agricultural year 2003–2004.

Dolomitic limestone composition was 23.3% CaO, 17.5% MgO, and 71% effective calcium carbonate equivalence (ECCE). In physical analysis of the dolomitic limestone, 68.8, 92.4, and 99.7% of particles passed 50, 20, and 10 mesh sieves, respectively. The composition of phosphogypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O), a by-product obtained from a Brazilian phosphoric acid industry, was 20% of Ca, 16% of S, and a small residue of 0.1% of P and F.

The dolomitic limestone rate (LR) was calculated to increase the base saturation in topsoil (0–20 cm) to 50, 70, and 90%, as follows in Eq. [1].

Formula 1[1]
where V2 is the estimated base saturation (50, 70, and 90%) and V1 is the base saturation measured in soil analysis, as in Eq. [2].

Formula 2[2]
where Caex, Mgex, and Kex are basic exchangeable cations and CEC is the total cation exchange capacity, calculated as Eq. [3].

Formula 3[3]

Total acidity in pH 7.0 (H + Al) was estimated by SMP-buffer solution method, in suspension with 10 cm3 of soil, 25 mL of CaCl2 0,01 mol L–1, and 5 mL of SMP-buffer solution (van Raij et al., 2001).

The phosphogypsum rate (PR) was calculated through the Eq. [4].

Formula 4[4]
where CL is the clay content (g kg–1) in the soil layer 20 to 40 cm.

Dolomitic limestone was applied to the pigeonpea crop residues on 15 Oct. 2002. Phosphogypsum was applied 1 d after liming in half of the plots. Both dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum were applied to the surface, with no soil incorporation.

The upland rice Caiapó is recommended for low fertility soils, especially in new areas and degraded pastures. IAC 202 shows low tolerance to Al3+ and Fe2+ toxicity, and its development in low fertility soils is unsatisfactory. The common bean Carioca is considered highly adaptable to the environment and is known for its production stability, rust resistence, and tolerance to soil acidity conditions. Pérola is highly productive and it is presently the most widely grown in Brazil, even though it is more sensitive to soil acidity.

Upland rice cultivars were sowed on 20 Nov. 2002, at a density of 70 seeds per meter, with 0.30 m spacing between rows. Fertilization was performed at sowing with 300 kg ha–1 of NPK 08–28–16 + 4.5% S + 0.5% Zn. Topdressing fertilization was performed with 50 kg of N (ammonium nitrate) ha–1, 45 d after emergence (tillering).

The following growing season, in 1 Jan. 2004, common bean cultivars were sowed at a density of 18 seeds per meter, with 0.45 m spacing between rows. Fertilization at sowing was the same used for rice the year before. Nitrogen topdressing was performed at a rate of 70 and 40 kg of N (ammonium nitrate) ha–1, at the stages V4 (third trifoliate leaf expanded) and R5 (pre-flowering). In the winter of 2003, the black oat (Avena strigosa Schreber cv. Comum) was grown in the whole experimental area.

Soil samples were taken 3 and 12 mo after amendments were applied, at depths of 0 to 5, 5 to 10, and 10 to 20 cm in all plots, and at 0 to 20 cm only on treatments without phosphogypsum. Seven subsamples were taken randomly from the plot area of each of the split plots between rows and combined into one composite sample. Samples analyses included following. Soil pH was determined in a 0.01 mol L–1 CaCl2 suspension (1:2.5 soil/solution). Exchangeable Al was extracted with neutral 1 mol L–1 KCl in a 1:10 soil/solution ratio and determined by titration with 0.025 mol L–1 NaOH solution. Exchangeable Ca, Mg, and K were extracted with ion exchange resin and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Using the results of exchangeable bases and total acidity at pH 7.0 (H + Al), the base saturation values were calculated (van Raij et al., 2001). Soil SO4–S analyses were performed through extraction by calcium phosphate 0.01 mol L–1 in a 1:2.5 soil/solution ratio and later determined by the turbidimetric method, using BaSO4 (Vitti, 1988). Topsoil samples (0–20 cm) taken in the dolomitic limestone treatments only without phosphogypsum plots, were subjected to extraction of available Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn by a 0.005 mol L–1 solution of DTPA at pH 7.3 and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (van Raij et al., 2001). Results are shown in Tables 1 , 2 , and 3 .


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  		Table 1. Chemical analysis of soil samples taken 3 mo after dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum application and ANOVA significance at three depths at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil.{dagger}

 

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  		Table 2. Chemical analysis of soil samples taken 12 mo after dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum application and ANOVA significance at three depths at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil.{dagger}

 

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  		Table 3. Micronutrients content at soil samples taken 3 and 12 mo after dolomitic limestone application, at a depth of 0 to 20 cm, and ANOVA significance, only without phosphogypsum treatments at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil.

 
Rice flowering took place on 5 Mar. (IAC 202) and 14 Mar. 2003 (Caiapó), while common bean cultivars flowered on 20 Feb. 2004. Samples were taken on these days for shoot dry matter determinations and leaf diagnosis (Cantarella et al., 1996; Ambrosano et al., 1996). Plants were dried in a forced-air oven at 65°C for 72 h and weighed for dry matter yield determination. Leaves were ground (to pass a 40-mesh stainless steel screen) and subjected to nutrient content determinations. Analyses of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn contents were performed following to nitric-perchloric acid digestion and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Malavolta et al., 1997). Nitrogen was analyzed by acid sulfuric digestion and later quantification by semi-micro-Kjeldahl method (Malavolta et al., 1997).

IAC 202 was harvested on 25 Mar. 2003 and Caiapó on 5 Apr. 2003. Carioca was harvested on 29 Mar. 2004, while Pérola was harvested on 2 Apr. 2004.

Data were subjected to an ANOVA using SAS (SAS Institute, 1997). Phosphogypsum application and cultivars means were compared by Fisher's protected LSD test at the 0.05 probability level. Dolomitic limestone rates were analyzed through regression analysis, adopting the magnitude of regression coefficients that were significant at the 0.05 probability level by t test as criterion for choosing the model.


   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
The contents of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in flag leaves of both rice cultivars were not influenced by phosphogypsum application, but an increase in S contents was observed (Table 4 ). Phosphoypsum is a sulfur source and increased S contents in the soil (Table 1). However, even in treatments without phosphogypsum application, the S contents in the flag leaf were in the range considered appropriate, that is, 1.4 to 3.0 g kg–1 (Cantarella et al., 1996).


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  		Table 4. Nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) in flag leaves, shoot dry matter, and grain yield of upland rice as affected by phosphogypsum application and cultivar, and ANOVA significance at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2002–2003.

 
Although Caiapó showed significantly higher N contents in the flag leaf (Table 4), both cultivars were in the appropriate content range (Cantarella et al., 1996). Zinc contents, on the other hand, were higher in IAC 202.

Dolomitic limestone application linearly increased Ca and Mg contents in leaves (Fig. 2a and 2b ), as dolomitic limestone is an excellent source of these nutrients. Similar results were obtained by Duarte et al. (1999) studying the response of rice cultivars to liming. The other macronutrients were not influenced by liming, and their contents were in the adequate range in all of the treatments (Cantarella et al., 1996), except for K, which contents were below this range.


Figure 2
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  		Fig. 2. (a) Calcium, (b) Mg, and (c) Mn contents in upland rice flag leaves as affected by surface dolomitic limestone rates. Averaged two phosphogypsum treatments and two cultivars. Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2002–2003. Symbols are observed values and lines are predicted values. Vertical bars represent standard error. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.

 
Also, in all treatments the contents of micronutrients were within the adequate range (Cantarella et al., 1996), except for Fe, which contents were below the range. Liming reduces Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn availability (Sumner et al., 1978). However, in this work only Mn contents were affected by dolomitic limestone surface application (Table 4), and results were adjusted to a quadratic function (Fig. 2c). Results indicate that liming had no effect on the availability of these nutrients in the soil (Table 3). Duarte et al. (1999) also reported no effect of liming on the contents of Cu and Zn in upland rice cultivars.

Shoot dry matter yield of upland rice was influenced by the cultivar and interactions cultivar x phosphogypsum and cultivar x liming (Table 4). The evaluation of the interactions (Table 5 ) shows that in the absence of phosphogypsum application that IAC 202 produced higher amounts of shoot dry matter than Caiapó. However, all of the cultivars responded to phosphogypsum application. In the interaction of liming x cultivar, IAC 202 produced higher amounts of shoot dry matter (Fig. 3a ). Also, only IAC 202 responded to liming, with the highest production at the estimated rate of 2010 kg of dolomitic limestone ha–1. This is an indication that IAC 202 is more responsive to liming and therefore more sensitive to soil acidity. According to Fageria (1982) and Ferreira et al. (1986), even though rice is considered a soil acidity adapted species, cultivars present different responses to Al and acidity amelioration.


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  		Table 5. Phosphogypsum x cultivar interaction for the shoot dry matter and grain yield of upland rice at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2002–2003.

 

Figure 3
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  		Fig. 3. Dolomitic limestone x cultivar interaction for (a) shoot dry matter and (b) grain yield of upland rice. Triangles = IAC 202 and circles = Caiapó, averaged two phosphogypsum treatments. Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2002–2003. Symbols are observed values and lines are predicted values. Vertical bars represent standard error. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.

 
Upland rice grain yield was influenced by liming, cultivar and interactions of cultivar x liming and cultivar x phosphogypsum (Table 4). Interpretation of the interaction of cultivar x phosphogypsum application revealed that IAC 202 was less productive than Caiapó and phosphogypsum application significantly increased linear grain yield in Caiapó (Table 5).

Higher dolomitic limestone rates resulted in grain yield increases in Caiapó, and at the highest rate a yield of more than 2000 kg ha–1 was observed (Fig. 3b). IAC 202 responded in a quadratic manner to dolomitic limestone rate increases, with a maximum yield at the estimated rate of 2520 kg ha–1. According to Fageria (1982), Ferreira et al. (1986), and Duarte et al. (1999), there are differences between rice cultivars in terms of soil Al and liming response. Although rice is considered adapted to soil acidity conditions (Fageria, 2000; Duarte et al., 1999), results can be explained by the fact that liming improved soil conditions (Table 1), favoring crop improvement.

Carvalho-Pupatto et al. (2003) reported upland rice yield increase due to improvements in soil chemical conditions, as achieved by the application of blast furnace slag. In general, Caiapó showed higher grain yields, even when no soil amelioration was used (Table 5and Fig. 3b), which can be explained by the fact that this cultivar is considered more tolerant to acidity than IAC 202. However, all treatments had low grain yields, which may be a consequence of dry periods and high temperatures from the beginning of the reproductive stage (floral differentiation) and flowering (Fig. 1). According to Yoshida (1981), the number of spikelets per panicle is severely affected when water deficit takes place from the beginning of the reproduction stage to 5 d before flowering. The occurrence of water deficit, especially during meiosis of pollen mother cells, from 3 to 11 d before flowering (Yoshida, 1977), reduced the number of plump spikelets per panicle (Crusciol et al., 2003) reducing grain yield.

In common bean, the contents of N in leaves were not affected by treatments (Table 6 ), probably because even in the negative control the soil chemical conditions did not limit symbiotic N fixation, and because mineral N topdressing was applied to supply crop needs. In all treatments the contents were within the range considered appropriate by Ambrosano et al. (1996). Galon et al. (1996) also reported no effect of dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum application on N contents in common bean leaves.


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  		Table 6. Nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) in leaves, shoot dry matter, and grain yield of common bean as affected by phosphogypsum application and cultivar, and ANOVA significance at Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2003–2004.

 
The contents of P were not influenced by dolomitic limestone or phosphogypsum surface application, but cultivar effect was observed (Table 6). Pérola showed higher P contents in leaves. In all treatments, P contents were in the adequate range, 2.5 to 4.0 g kg–1 (Ambrosano et al., 1996). Potassium contents in common bean leaves were affected only by dolomitic limestone application (Table 6). Surface dolomitic limestone application had a significant quadratic effect on K contents (Fig. 4a ). The K absorption increase with dolomitic limestone application is perhaps related to the increased contents of exchangeable Ca in the soil (Table 2), which results in K release from the exchange sites to the soil solution (Nogueira and Mozeto, 1990; Caires et al., 2001). Moreover, concentrations sufficient of Ca in the soil solution are necessary to become maximum K uptake (Malavolta, 1980). Fageria and Baligar (1999) related that K content in common bean plant was quadratically increased as soil Ca content increased. However, in all treatments the K contents were below the range (20–24 g kg–1) considered adequate for the bean crop (Ambrosano et al., 1996).


Figure 4
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  		Fig. 4. (a) Potassium, (b) Mg, (c) S, and (d) Zn contents in leaves, (e) shoot dry matter, and (f) grain yield of common bean as affected by surface dolomitic limestone rates. Circles = averaged two cultivars and two phosphogypsum treatments. Diamonds = 0 kg ha–1 of phosphogypsum and Squares = 2100 kg ha–1 of phosphogypsum, averaged two cultivars. Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil, 2003–2004. Symbols are observed values and lines are predicted values. Vertical bars represent standard error. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.

 
Calcium contents in common bean leaves were affected by phosphogypsum application and cultivar (Table 6). Phosphogypsum application increased the Ca contents in common bean leaves, which is a consequence of the higher contents of this nutrient in the soil, since phosphogypsum is a source of Ca and S (Table 2 and 6). Caires et al. (2003) and Caires et al. (2004) also observed an increase in Ca contents in soybean and maize leaves with phosphogypsum application. Carioca showed higher Ca contents in leaves in comparison to Pérola (Table 6). Silva (2002) reported a higher Ca uptake and transport capacity in Carioca, which is probably due to the fact that this cultivar is considered efficient in acid soil conditions (Parra and Moda-Cirino, 1996). However, liming did not affect Ca contents in common bean leaves.

No previous works have studied the mineral nutrition of common bean under surface liming. However, in other crops, like soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and maize (Zea mays L.), many works have reported no effect of surface liming on Ca contents in leaves (Oliveira and Pavan, 1996; Caires and Fonseca, 2000; Caires et al., 2001; Caires et al., 2002; Caires et al., 2003; Caires et al., 2004). In all treatments, Ca contents in common bean leaves were within the adequate range (Ambrosano et al., 1996).

A significant effect of phosphogypsum application and the interaction of dolomitic limestone x phosphogypsum were observed in Mg contents in common bean leaves (Table 6 and Fig. 4b). There was no effect of liming on Mg uptake in common bean when phosphogypsum was not applied. However, under phosphogypsum application dolomitic limestone rates increased the contents of Mg in leaves. Phosphogypsum affected Mg uptake, especially without the surface application of dolomitic limestone, an even in lower dolomitic limestone rates. This effect is probably due to Mg leaching in the soil profile, and even because phosphogypsum application may have increased Ca/Mg ratio in these treatments. Reductions in the contents of Mg in soybean leaves have been reported with phosphogypsum surface application (Oliveira and Pavan, 1996; Caires et al., 1998; Caires et al., 2003).

Sulfur contents in common bean leaves were influenced by phosphogypsum, cultivar, and the interaction of liming x phosphogypsum (Table 6). Phosphogypsum application increased S contents in leaves. Carioca showed higher content of S, probably as a result of the higher amount of roots and better distribution of the root system in relation to Pérola (Silva, 2002), which may have allowed S uptake at greater depths, considering that S can also be absorbed from the subsoil (Quaggio et al., 1993). In the absence of phosphogypsum, liming promoted increases in the S content in common bean leaves (Fig. 4c). The S required by plants may be supplied in part by the mineralization of the organic matter, and liming can accelerate the process by increasing pH (Caires and Fonseca, 2000; Rosolem et al., 2003). However, in all treatments, the S contents were above the adequate range (Ambrosano et al., 1996).

Micronutrient concentrations in common bean leaves were not affected by dolomitic limestone and phosphogypsum application (Table 6), but were influenced by cultivar (Cu, Mn, and Zn) and liming x phosphogypsum interaction (Zn). Carioca showed higher contents of Cu, Mn, and Zn in leaves. The higher uptake of Cu, Mn, and Zn may be related to the higher root growth of Carioca, allowing better soil exploration and nutrient uptake. Silva (2002) observed higher Zn uptake and transport capacities in this cultivar in comparison to Pérola.

Significant interaction was found between liming and phosphogypsum application in the content of Zn in leaves (Fig. 4d). It can be observed that in the absence of limestone, phosphogypsum application resulted in higher contents of this nutrient in leaves, probably as a consequence of the higher root growth promoted by this treatment. However, in the presence of phosphogypsum, liming caused Zn uptake reduction in common bean, probably due to competitive inhibition between Ca and Zn (Galon et al., 1996) resulting from phosphogypsum application in association with higher dolomitic limestone rates. Liming did not affect the uptake of other micronutrients, and no effect of liming was found in the sampling performed 12 mo after application on soil contents of micronutrients. Except for Fe, which was present in higher contents, the contents of micronutrients were in the adequate range Ambrosano et al. (1996).

Carioca showed the highest shoot dry matter production, independent of the treatment (Table 6). The shoot dry matter of common bean cultivars was also affected by the interaction of liming x phosphogypsum application. In the presence of phosphogypsum, liming allowed a linear shoot dry matter increase (Fig. 4e). However, in the absence of phosphogypsum application, no effect from liming was observed. The shoot dry matter increase in the presence of phosphogypsum can be explained by the Mg supply, since in the presence of phosphogypsum, liming increased Mg contents in leaves (Fig. 4b). Fageria et al. (1989), Vale (1994), Vale (1998) and Silva (2002) observed shoot dry matter increase in common bean with limestone incorporation.

Common bean grain yield was influenced by the cultivar and liming x phosphogypsum interaction (Table 6). Carioca showed the higher grain yield. This result is associated to the higher nutrient uptake capacity that results from the vigorous root system of this cultivar. Parra and Moda-Cirino (1996) observed that Carioca is adapted to soil acidity conditions, and Silva (2002) reported a higher nutrient uptake and transport in this cultivar.

In the absence of phosphogypsum application, liming increased grain yield (Fig. 4f). With data adjusted to a quadratic function, the maximum yield was obtained with an estimated rate of 2075 kg of dolomitic limestone ha–1. The number of pods per plant is the production component that most correlates to grain yield, and is the most affected by environment conditions. Therefore, the acidity reduction and the base saturation increase resulting from liming in the absence of phosphogypsum, especially at depths of 5 to 10 and 10 to 20 cm (Table 2), may have favored the adequate nutrition of common bean cultivars. According to Portes (1996), under nutrient deficiency common bean produces fewer flowers per plant and consequently fewer pods per plant than well nourished plants, which directly influences grain yield. Many works report yield increase in common bean as a result of limestone incorporation (Barbosa Filho and Silva, 2000; Fageria, 2001; Fageria and Stone, 2004), but there are no reports on the effect of surface liming and phosphogypsum application on common bean yield.


   CONCLUSIONS
TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
 
The content of Ca, Mg, and Mn in flag leaves and upland rice yield increased with surface dolomitic limestone application. Liming increased the production of dry matter in IAC 202. Phosphogypsum application increased S content in leaves of both rice cultivars, and resulted in higher grain yield in Caiapó. Liming resulted in higher content of K in the leaves of both common bean cultivars. In the absence of phosphogypsum, liming increased S contents and grain yield in the common bean cultivars. Magnesium content in leaves was reduced with the application of phosphogypsum in lower dolomitic limestone rates. In the presence of phosphogypsum, liming reduced Zn contents in common bean leaves and increased shoot dry matter yield. Phosphogypsum application increased the contents of Ca and S, and reduced the contents of Mg in common bean leaves. Using soil acidity tolerant cultivars allows higher crop yields at establishment of a no-till system, when the effective soil amelioration has not yet been achieved.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
To FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), for supporting this research and providing scholarships to first author. To CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), for providing scholarships to second author.

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TOP
 NOTES
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 





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