Published online 11 January 2008
Published in Agron J 100:42-51 (2008)
DOI: 10.2134/agrojnl2006.0259
© 2008 American Society of Agronomy
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
COTTON
Economic Comparison of Transgenic and Nontransgenic Cotton Production Systems in Georgia
P. Josta,
D. Shurleyb,
S. Culpepperb,
P. Robertsb,*,
R. Nicholsc,
J. Reevesc and
S. Anthonyd
a 106 Corvina Dr., Clayton, NC 27520
b Univ. of Georgia, College of Agric. and Environ. Sci., P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 31794
c Cotton Inc., 6399 Weston Pkwy., Cary, NC 27513
d USDA-ARS Cotton Ginning Res. Unit, P.O. Box 256, Stoneville, MS 38776
* Corresponding author (proberts{at}uga.edu).
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ABSTRACT
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Transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cultivars produce lint and seed and their propriety traits provide part of the crop's insect management and/or enable use of broad-spectrum herbicides for weed management. The standard procedures for conducting official cultivar trials utilize common pest management across all cultivars; whereas the pest management options and their associated potential for cost reductions are principal features of current transgenic cultivars. Field experiments were conducted to compare production systems utilizing cotton cultivars possessing different transgenic technologies managed in accordance with their respective genetic capabilities. In 2001 and 2002, selection of the Roundup Ready (RR) technology system resulted in reduced returns to the producer, while higher returns were attained from nontransgenic, Bollgard (B), and Bollgard/Roundup Ready (BR) technologies. In 2003, selection of the RR technology system or the Bollgard II/Roundup Ready (B2R) system reduced returns, while similar, higher returns were attained from nontransgenic, B, and BR technologies. In 2004, a nontransgenic system was superior to the BR, B2R, and Liberty Link (LL) systems in Tifton, but similar returns were achieved from nontransgenic, BR, and B2R technologies in Midville. Cultivar selection was important among the technology systems. Collectively these results indicate that profitability was most closely associated with yields and not the transgenic technologies.
Abbreviations: B, Bollgard • BG, Bollgard • BGRR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BG/RR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BGII/RR, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready • BR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BXN, bromoxynil resistant • B2LL, Bollgard II/Liberty Link • B2R, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready • B2RF, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready Flex • DAP, days after planting • HVI, high volume instrument testing • LDP, loan deficiency payment • PPI, preplant incorporated • PRE, pre-emergence • LL, Liberty Link • NT, nontransgenic • OCTs, official cultivar trials • R, Roundup Ready • RF, Roundup Ready Flex • RR, Roundup Ready • W, Widestrike • WR, Widestrike/Roundup Ready • WRF, Widestrike/Roundup Ready Flex
Economic Comparison of Transgenic and Nontransgenic Cotton Production Systems in Georgia
P. Josta,
D. Shurleyb,
S. Culpepperb,
P. Robertsb,*,
R. Nicholsc,
J. Reevesc and
S. Anthonyd
a 106 Corvina Dr., Clayton, NC 27520
b Univ. of Georgia, College of Agric. and Environ. Sci., P.O. Box 748, Tifton, GA 31794
c Cotton Inc., 6399 Weston Pkwy., Cary, NC 27513
d USDA-ARS Cotton Ginning Res. Unit, P.O. Box 256, Stoneville, MS 38776
* Corresponding author (proberts{at}uga.edu).
Received for publication September 12, 2006.
Transgenic cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) cultivars produce lint and seed and their propriety traits provide part of the crop's insect management and/or enable use of broad-spectrum herbicides for weed management. The standard procedures for conducting official cultivar trials utilize common pest management across all cultivars; whereas the pest management options and their associated potential for cost reductions are principal features of current transgenic cultivars. Field experiments were conducted to compare production systems utilizing cotton cultivars possessing different transgenic technologies managed in accordance with their respective genetic capabilities. In 2001 and 2002, selection of the Roundup Ready (RR) technology system resulted in reduced returns to the producer, while higher returns were attained from nontransgenic, Bollgard (B), and Bollgard/Roundup Ready (BR) technologies. In 2003, selection of the RR technology system or the Bollgard II/Roundup Ready (B2R) system reduced returns, while similar, higher returns were attained from nontransgenic, B, and BR technologies. In 2004, a nontransgenic system was superior to the BR, B2R, and Liberty Link (LL) systems in Tifton, but similar returns were achieved from nontransgenic, BR, and B2R technologies in Midville. Cultivar selection was important among the technology systems. Collectively these results indicate that profitability was most closely associated with yields and not the transgenic technologies.
Abbreviations: B, Bollgard • BG, Bollgard • BGRR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BG/RR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BGII/RR, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready • BR, Bollgard/Roundup Ready (also known as stacked gene) • BXN, bromoxynil resistant • B2LL, Bollgard II/Liberty Link • B2R, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready • B2RF, Bollgard II/Roundup Ready Flex • DAP, days after planting • HVI, high volume instrument testing • LDP, loan deficiency payment • PPI, preplant incorporated • PRE, pre-emergence • LL, Liberty Link • NT, nontransgenic • OCTs, official cultivar trials • R, Roundup Ready • RF, Roundup Ready Flex • RR, Roundup Ready • W, Widestrike • WR, Widestrike/Roundup Ready • WRF, Widestrike/Roundup Ready Flex
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INTRODUCTION
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BEFORE THE AVAILABILITY of transgenic technology, weed management in cotton was more difficult than in other agronomic crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) or soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and losses to insect pests, particularly to lepidoperous pests, were severe (Buchanan and Burns, 1970; Snipes and Mueller, 1992; Williams, 1995). Development of biological control technology by transferring genes between organisms that do not readily cross-fertilize has enabled breeders to develop crops with novel pest-managing traits (Dyer, 1996). The first transgenic cotton was introduced in 1995; BXN cultivars were resistant to the broad-leaf herbicide bromoxynil (Collins, 1996) (Table 1
). At the rates permitted in BXN cotton, bromoxynil readily controlled cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.) and morningglories (Ipomoea spp.); whereas previously these weeds were difficult to manage using only cotton-selective herbicides and escapes were common (Culpepper and York, 1997). Since 1995, several new traits and combinations of traits have been developed and marketed in cotton cultivars. Cultivars expressing an endotoxin (Cry I Ac) produced by the bacterium Bacillus thruringiensis (Bt) were introduced in 1996 and marketed as Bollgard (B or BG) cotton (Begemann, 1996). Bollgard cultivars control such major lepidopteran pests of cotton as the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) and the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), and suppress populations of bollworm (Helicoverpa zea). Glyphosate resistant, or Roundup Ready (R or RR), cultivars were marketed the following year (Sherrick, 1996). Glyphosate is a herbicide with an extremely broad spectrum of activity (Jaworski, 1972; Spurrier, 1973). In 1998, cultivars possessing both the Cry I Ac Bt endotoxin and the RR technology, often referred to as stacked gene cultivars (BR, BGRR, or BG/RR), were introduced (Kerby and Voth, 1998); cultivars possessing both the Bt endotoxin and bromoxynil resistance were also introduced that same year (Panter et al., 1998).
There followed a period of 4 yr during which no new types of transgenic technologies were introduced for cotton (Table 1). In 2004, introductions of the so-called second generation of transgenic cultivars commenced. Cultivars were introduced that made improvements in both Bt and glyphosate resistance technologies. Bollgard II, a genetic technology whereby two Bt endotoxins are expressed by the cultivar, has an enhanced spectrum of control of lepidopteran insect pests compared with the single-gene B cultivars. Bollgard II technology was commercially released in 2004 in cultivars that also expressed the RR technology (BGII/RR or B2R) (Albers and Shoemaker, 2004; Robinson, 2004). In that same year, LL cultivars, resistant to the herbicide glufosinate, were introduced (Becker et al., 2004). Glufosinate is also a broad spectrum herbicide; however, it must be used on relatively small weeds to be most effective (Corbett et al., 2004, Steckel et al., 1997). In 2005, another two gene Bt technology were released by Dow Agrosciences. Widestrike technology was released in cultivars that possess the insect-managing technology alone (W), or in conjunction with the RR technology (WR) (Thompson et al., 2005). In 2006, an enhanced version of the RR technology, Roundup Ready Flex (RF), was commercially available (Murdock, 2006). The genetic event conferring glyphosate resistance in the RR technology only fully protects cotton fruiting forms if glyphosate is applied to cotton foliage before the 4-leaf stage (Pline et al., 2002). Roundup Ready Flex technology permits application of glyphosate over the top of cotton throughout the period of fruit set. Roundup Ready Flex technology will be available in cultivars possessing that technology alone (RF), and with Bollgard II (B2RF) or with Widestrike (WRF). In 2006, Bollgard II technology in conjunction with LL technology (B2LL) was introduced (J. Ford, personal communication, 2006).
Cotton producers planted transgenic cultivars on over 82% of U.S. hectares in 2005 (USDA-Agricultural Marketing Service, 2005). The management of key lepidopteran pests that is available with the Bt gene(s) combined with the broad-spectrum weed control available through the use of glyphosate (Culpepper and York, 1999) are the attributes that growers prefer in transgenic cultivars. Planting seed companies have stated that the increasing preference of growers for transgenic cultivars is the reason they are reducing the number of nontransgenic varieties they offer for sale.
Transgenic cotton cultivars are in essence dual-purpose products, providing seed and lint for producers to sell for profit, plus management of certain insect pests and/or the ability to apply herbicides that would otherwise kill or damage nontransgenic cotton (May et al., 2003). Growers face a steadily increasing selection of cultivars and pest management options as seed companies and biotechnology providers launch new cultivars and transgenic technologies. The costs of paying higher seed prices and technology fees in advance must be compared with relying on the traditional pesticide treatments used with nontransgenic cultivars (May et al., 2003). The high investment for the transgenic cultivars before any yield is realized is a predicament for growers. Cultivar performance data encompassing both yield and profitability are essential for growers to make critical comparisons (May et al., 2003).
The rapid development and availability of multiple transgenic cotton systems has outpaced the capability of OCTs to convey their agronomic merits and evaluate their pest management features. The limitations of OCTs to convey performance of transgenic cultivars and render unbiased yields among all cultivars when produced with insect and weed management intended for nontransgenic cultivars were summarized by May et al. (2003). These authors concluded that yields of Bt cultivars in OCTs can be biased upward from the additive effects of insecticide applications combined with the insect control attributed to Bt cotton. Another concern was the possibility of yield reduction imposed on glyphosate resistant cultivars when produced with high rates of soil-applied herbicides. The authors stated that OCTs still have value in defining general adaptation of new cultivars, but that cultivar choice could be facilitated by also considering data from trials where cultivars are produced according to their pest management capabilities.
A few studies report findings from agronomic and economic evaluations of transgenic and nontransgenic cultivars when pest management was tailored to each cultivar. Bryant et al. (2003) reported that cultivar profitability was most closely related to yield and secondarily to pest management costs under the pest pressure in their trials. The authors did not find an overall economic advantage with any transgenic production approach. The study conducted from 1998 through 2000 by Bryant et al. (2003) evaluated top performing cultivars in Arkansas possessing BXN, B, RR, and BR transgenic technologies. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the yield and returns of top performing grower-accepted cultivars in Georgia possessing B, RR, BR, B2R, and LL transgenic technology.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Field experiments were conducted from 2001 through 2004 to compare cotton production systems utilizing cotton cultivars possessing differing transgenic technologies. Treatments consisted of cotton cultivars possessing no pest management system, an insect management system, a weed management system, or a combination of both and were managed in accordance. Experiments were conducted at the Coastal Plain Experiment Station in Tifton, GA, in 2001 through 2004, and at the Southeast Research and Education Center in Midville, GA, in 2003 and 2004. In the years, 2001 and 2002, 2003, and 2004, 13, 15, or 16 cultivars, respectively, were evaluated (Table 1). Cultivar and transgenic system selection in each year was based on performance in the University of Georgia OCTs, adoption by Georgia growers, and cultivars that were offered by their respective planting seed companies as representative of new technologies (May et al., 2003). In each test, cultivars were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Planting occurred during the first 2 wk of May in all years in both locations. Plots were 12.2 m long by six 0.9-m rows wide in Tifton, GA, and six 0.96-m rows wide in Midville, GA.
Each cultivar was managed to maximize profit, consistent with practices recommended by the University of Georgia Extension Service (Jost et al., 2006), and administered by the authors. Fertilization, irrigation, and plant growth regulator and harvest-aid applications were held consistent across all cultivars in a given location or year.
The pest management program for each cultivar was selected based on the pest management traits possessed by each cultivar. Thus, the insect and weed management programs were unique to each transgenic system. These inputs varied by location and year and were dictated by pest pressure. Plots were scouted at least weekly for insect pests. Insecticide treatments were based on thresholds determined for each insect pest management system possessed by the cultivars. Once a weed or insect threshold was reached within an individual transgenic system, all cultivars possessing that technology were treated identically.
Herbicide programs utilized in each trial are listed in Table 2
. The transgenic and nontransgenic weed management systems were similar. All systems received full tillage and preplant incorporated (PPI) applications of pendimethalin [N-(1-ethylpropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzeneamine]. In the Coastal Plain, pre-emergence control with a dinitroaniline herbicide is essential for control of Florida pusley (Richardia scabra). The nontransgenic systems received pre-emergence treatments at planting and cultivation at about 30 days after planting (DAP); in contrast, the transgenic systems received one or two applications of broad-spectrum herbicide, consistent with respective tolerances of the cultivars, as needed. All treatments received lay-by applications to provide burn-down of escapes and soil-residual control of late-emerging weeds. Heliothine insect pressure was light in 2001 and 2002, and moderate in 2003 and 2004 (Table 3
). In Tifton, the Bt cultivars were not treated with insecticides in 2001 or 2002, and treated once and twice in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The non-Bt cultivars were either not treated or treated twice, four times, and three times with insecticides in the 4 yr, respectively. The Bt and non-Bt cultivars were treated one and two times, respectively, with insecticides in 2003 and 2004 in Midville. There were no differences in the insect control programs between the BR and B2R systems. Therefore, these technologies are referred to collectively as the Bt system.
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Table 2. Herbicide program for three weed pest management systems, Tifton, GA, 2001–2004, and Midville, GA, 2003–2004.
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Yields were measured by machine harvesting the center four rows of each plot. In each year and location, seed cotton harvested from the first and third replications and the second and fourth replications were combined to create two samples for each cultivar that were large enough to be processed at the USDA-ARS Cotton Ginning Laboratory in Stoneville, MS, for ginning and lint turn-out determinations. Seed cotton yields for each replication of a cultivar were multiplied by lint turnout obtained from corresponding gin samples to obtain the lint yield. Seed turnout for each plot was calculated as the portion of the sample that was not attributed to lint. Fiber properties were measured on lint of each ginned sample by High Volume Instrument (HVI) testing (Uster Technologies Inc.) at the Textile Service Laboratory at Cotton Incorporated in Cary, NC. For each graded sample, the value of lint was determined. The price/kg of lint for each sample was calculated by adjusting the average November Georgia price for quality (including loan deficiency payment [LDP]) for each year. Lint income for each replication of a cultivar was determined by multiplying lint yield by the price/kg of lint from corresponding gin samples. Seed income was determined by multiplying the seed yield by the average November Georgia price for each year. Although used to calculate net returns of a cultivar, the combining of replications for ginning purposes precluded the statistical analysis of lint turn-out, lint quality, and price received/kg of lint.
Seed costs, including seed and technology fee, were calculated for each cultivar based on local prices in each year. Technology fees are charged per bag of seed, and were calculated based on a seeding rate of 9.8 seed/m of row. Herbicide and insecticide costs were determined in each year by averaging several locally obtained prices. Application costs are those associated with specific applications for each cultivar in each year and location (Shurley, 2006).
For each cultivar, the return above system cost was calculated. System costs include seed and technology fee, herbicides, insecticides, and application. All other inputs and costs (ginning costs were not accounted for) were the same regardless of technology. The Return above system cost was calculated as:
R = the return above system costs for variety x, technology y; Y = lint yield (kg/ha) for variety x; LP = the November average Georgia price/kg adjusted for quality q for variety x (includes LDP); C = the cottonseed yield for variety x; SP = the November average Georgia price received for cottonseed; S = seed cost/ha for variety x, technology y; H = herbicide costs/ha for technology y; I = insecticide costs/ha for technology y; A = herbicide and insecticide application costs/ha for technology y.
Lint yield and returns above system costs were analyzed using the PROC GLM procedure in the SAS version 9.1.3 statistical software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Yield and return data were combined across years and locations where like cultivars were evaluated and no significant cultivar by year or location interaction was observed. In addition, for all situations where data were combined across sites and/or years, a homogeneity of error variance test was conducted (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). When this test was not significant, the overall error term was used to evaluate cultivar differences; if this test indicated a significant difference in error variance between years or locations, the cultivar by year or location term was used to test cultivar differences. In the presence of a significant cultivar by year or location interaction, data are presented separately by year or location. Cultivar means were separated using Fisher's Protected LSD at a P = 0.05. Selected contrasts were employed to evaluate net returns of a technology system as a whole (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
Multiple regression was performed with returns of a cultivar as the dependent variable and lint yield, price received, seed income, seed cost, herbicide cost, insecticide cost, and application costs as the independent variables. The standardized regression coefficients were calculated for each of the independent variables to quantify the magnitude of influence of each on net return of a variety (Neter et al., 1996). A variable was dropped from certain analyses to alleviate multicollinearity using standard procedures.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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No year by cultivar interactions were noted for yields or returns for the cultivars evaluated in Tifton in 2001 and 2002. Thus the data are presented as a combined analysis for these 2 yr with cultivars listed in order of returns (Table 4
). With few exceptions, the rank order of the lint yield and those for returns were the same. Contrast analysis of the systems indicated that the nontransgenic, B, and BR systems provided greater returns than did the RR system. This outcome is consistent with the reduced yields observed with the RR cultivars. There was no difference in returns between the nontransgenic, B, and BR systems. Thus, the B and BR technologies systems reduced production costs only enough to compensate for their respective technology fees. When returns were examined within a system, significant differences were observed between nontransgenic cultivars, but no cultivar differentiations were noted within the B, BR, or RR technologies. The 2001 and 2002 data suggest that selection of an RR technology system would result in reduced returns to the producer. Similar returns, higher than those produced with RR cultivars, could be attained from nontransgenic, B, and BR technologies. However, cultivar selection was important among the nontransgenic cultivars.
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Table 4. Lint yield, price, seed income, seed costs, herbicide costs, insecticide costs, application costs, and returns for cotton cultivars, and contrast of returns by technology system, Tifton, 2001 and 2002.
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No location by cultivar interactions were noted for yields or returns for the cultivars evaluated in Tifton and Midville in 2003. Thus data are presented as a combined analysis for these two locations (Table 5
). Cultivars are listed in order of returns. Again, lint yields generally followed returns. Contrast analysis of the systems as a whole indicated that no technology system provided significantly greater returns than did the nontransgenic system. The nontransgenic system provided greater returns than did the RR and B2R technology systems, indicating production costs in these systems were not reduced to levels that could compensate for associated technology fees and differences in yields among production systems. There were no differences in returns between the nontransgenic, BR, and LL systems. Significant differences were noted for cultivars within the nontransgenic, RR, and BR technology systems. Returns were not different between the two B2R cultivars and only one LL cultivar was evaluated. The 2003 data indicate again that selection of an RR technology system as well as a B2R system would result in reduced returns to the producer. Similar returns could be attained from nontransgenic, B, and BR technologies. However, cultivar selection was important for the nontransgenic and BR cultivars.
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Table 5. Lint yield, price, seed income, and seed costs, herbicide costs, insecticide costs, application costs, and returns for cotton cultivars, and contrast of returns by technology system, Midville and Tifton, 2003.
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In 2004, a significant location by cultivar interaction was noted for both yields and returns, therefore the data from Tifton and Midville are presented in Tables 6
and 7
, respectively. In each of these tables, cultivars are listed in order of returns. At both locations, lint yields generally followed return trends. At Tifton, the nontransgenic system provided greater returns than did any other technology system. The B2R system provided lower returns than did the other systems. Returns for the BR and LL systems were intermediate and did not differ. In Midville, there were no differences between the nontransgenic, BR, and B2R systems, and these three systems provided greater returns than did the LL system. Yields with the LL cultivars were low. Significant cultivar differences were noted within the BR and B2R systems in both locations. No differences were noted between the two LL cultivars evaluated in either location, and only one nontransgenic variety was tested. The 2004 data indicate that a nontransgenic cultivar was the superior choice in Tifton, but that similar returns could be attained from nontransgenic, BR, and B2R technologies in Midville. However, cultivar selection was important for the BR and B2R cultivars.
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Table 6. Lint yield, price, seed income, and seed costs, herbicide costs, insecticide costs, application costs, and returns for cotton cultivars, and contrast of returns by technology system, Tifton, 2004.
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Table 7. Lint yield, price, seed income, and seed costs, herbicide costs, insecticide costs, application costs, and returns for cotton cultivars, and contrast of returns by technology system, Midville, 2004.
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Multiple regression analysis indicated that as lint yield, price, and seed income increased, net returns were positively influenced in all studies (Table 8
). As costs associated with seed increased, net returns were negatively influenced. The fact that seed cost, which increases dramatically with trait-enhanced cultivars, did not positively influence returns, suggests that technology system per se did not provide greater returns. The standardized coefficients of these variables indicate that lint yield was the parameter having the greatest impact on net returns of a cultivar.
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Table 8. Multiple regression of lint yield, lint price, seed income, seed cost, herbicide cost and application, and insecticide cost and application on net return of a variety.
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CONCLUSIONS
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Lint and seed yield were consistently linked with increasing profitability in the six systems trials conducted in Georgia. Fiber quality of the lint, quantified as price received per kg of lint, was important in certain years and locations but not to the same degree as yield of lint and seed. Therefore, under current pricing structures, yield potential should be the primary factor evaluated when considering profit potential of a specific cultivar.
When considered as a whole, no transgenic technology system provided greater returns than a nontransgenic system in any year or location. The predictability of pest management and the convenience that growers attribute to the transgenic cultivars implies that they save management time and therefore labor not accounted for in the application costs of insecticides and herbicides. Thus, general use of transgenic cultivars could create savings at a farm enterprise level. One benefit often attributed to transgenic production systems is the ability to farm more hectares with the same number of personnel or farm the same number of hectares with fewer personnel.
The RR system was consistently the worst performer in terms of returns in all years and locations evaluated. Generally, these cultivars expressed lower yields than cultivars from other systems. These data contrast with the observation made by Bryant et al. (2003), who found that high yields and returns could be realized by carefully selecting for yields among the cultivars in all technology systems evaluated. A mixed response was noted for the B2R and LL systems. Differences in yields were found among nontransgenic cultivars and among those possessing the BR and B2R technologies. Cultivars expressing technologies that were recently registered, such as the LL and B2R cultivars, tended to have low yields relative to technologies that had been registered for several years.
Collectively, these results indicated that profitability was most closely associated with yield and not with technology. Similar to the conclusions of Bryant et al. (2003), cultivar selection for profitability must focus on yield potential.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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This research was supported by Cotton Incorporated. The authors thank the technicians and staff of the Cotton Incorporated Textile Services Laboratory for the fiber quality data.
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NOTES
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All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
